The machinery used may be the same as that used in the cloth bleach, and each operation may be conducted in the same manner. In some warp bleachworks, while the kiers are made in the same way, the other machines are made differently. The chemicing and souring is done in strong cisterns provided with a false bottom; in these the warps are allowed to remain for about two hours. A more complicated form of chemicing cistern is also in use. This is made of stone, and is provided with a false bottom. Above is a tank or sieve, as it is called, having a perforated bottom through which the liquor flows on the warp in the cistern below.
Under the chemicing cistern is a tank into which the liquor flows, and from which it is pumped up into the sieve above. A circulation of liquor is thus kept up during the whole of the operation. Owing to the action of the chemic or acid on the metal work of the pump there is great wear and tear of the latter, necessitating frequent repairs. This is a defect in this form of chemicing machine. For drying the warps a hydro-extractor is first used to get the surplus liquor from the goods.
This machine is now well known, and is in use in every bleachworks, where it is familiarly known as the "whiz," and the operation is generally called whizzing. Hydro-extractors are described under the head of "Dyeing Machinery".
The actual drying of the warps is done over the "tins" as they are called. These are a number of large cylinders measuring about 20 inches in diameter and about--for warp drying--5 feet long. Usually they are arranged vertically in two tiers, each tier consisting of about five cylinders, not arranged directly one above another but in a zig-zag manner, the centres of the first, third and fifth being in one line, and the centres of the others in another line. The cylinders are made to revolve by suitable driving mechanism, and into them is sent steam at about 5 lb. to 10 lb. pressure, which heats up the cylinders, whereby the warp passing over them is dried. This drying may be partial or complete, being regulated by the speed at which the warps pass over the cylinders and by the quantity of steam passed into the same. The quicker the speed and the smaller the amount of steam, the less the warps are dried; while, on the other hand, the slower the speed and the larger the amount and greater the pressure of the steam, the quicker and more thoroughly are the warps dried. As there is a great deal of water formed in the cylinders by the condensation of the steam, means are always provided for carrying off this water, as its retention in the cylinders often leads to serious results and damage to the machine.
=Hank Bleaching.=--So far as the chemical part of hank bleaching is concerned it does not differ from that of warp bleaching; the same operations and proportions of chemicals may be used and in the same order, but there is some difference in the machinery which is used. The hanks may be manipulated in two ways: they may be either kept in separate hanks, which is the method mostly in vogue in modern bleach-houses, or they may be linked together in the form of a chain.
In the latter case the operations and the machinery may be the same as used in the madder bleach, with a few unimportant minor differences. In the final washing the dumping machine is used, which consists of two wooden bowls set over a wooden trough containing the wash waters. The top bowl is covered with a thick layer of rope and merely rests on the bottom bowl by its own weight, and is driven by friction from the latter. The chain of hanks passing through between the two bowls has the surplus liquor squeezed out of it, and as there is considerable increase in the thickness at the points of linkage between the hanks, when these pass through the bowls they lift up the top bowl, which, when the thick places have passed through, falls down with a sudden bump upon the thin places, and this bumping drives out all the surplus liquor and drives the liquor itself into the very centre of the hanks, which is sometimes an advantage.
In modern bleach-houses the chain form is gradually giving place to the method of bleaching separate hanks, partly because so many improvements have been made in the hank-bleaching machinery of late years, which enables bleachers to handle the yarn in the form of separate hanks better than they could do formerly; and as bleaching in separate hanks means that the cotton is kept in a more open form, and is thus more easily penetrated by the various liquors which are used, it follows that the bleach will be better and more thorough, which is what the bleacher aims at. At the same time weaker liquors or, what is the same thing, less material can be used, which means a saving in the cost of the process. For bleaching yarn in the hank the following process may be followed with good results:--
(1) Lye boil, using 1,000 lb. yarn, 40 lb. caustic soda of 70 per cent., and 50 lb. of soda ash of 58 per cent., giving five to six hours' boil at low pressure.
(2) Wash through washing machine.
(3) Second lye boil, using 40 lb. soda ash of 58 per cent., and giving two to three hours' boil, wash again through a washing machine.
(4) Chemic as in warp bleaching.
(5) Sour as in warp bleaching.
(6) Wash well.
(7) Hydro extract and dry.
Sometimes, if the yarn is to be sold in thread form, before the last operation it passes through another, _viz._, treating with soap and blue liquors, which will be dealt with presently.
The lye boils are done in the ordinary kiers, and do not call for further notice, except that in filling the goods into the kiers care should be taken that while sufficiently loose to permit of the alkaline liquors penetrating through the hanks properly, yet they should be so packed that they will not float about and thus become entangled and damaged.
The washing is nowadays done in a special form of washing machine, designed to wash the hanks quickly and well with as little expenditure of labour and washing liquor as possible. There are now several makes of these washing machines on the market, most of them do their work well, and it is difficult to say which is the best. Some machines are made to wash only one bundle at once, while others will do several bundles.
Generally the principle on which they are constructed is the same in all, a trough containing the ash liquor, over which is suspended a revolving reel or bobbin, usually made of wood or enamelled iron, the bobbin being polygonal in form so that it will overcome readily any resistance the yarn may offer and carry the hank round as it revolves.
The hank dips into the wash liquor in the trough, and as it is drawn through by the revolution of the bobbin it is washed very effectually.
The moving of the hank opens out the threads, and thus the wash liquor thoroughly penetrates to every part of the hank, so that a few minutes'
run through this machine thoroughly washes the yarn. A constant stream of clean water is passed through the trough. This machine may also be used for soaping and sizing the hanks if required. By extending the trough in a horizontal direction, and increasing the number of reels or bobbins, the quantity of material that can be washed at one time can be extended, although not to an indefinite extent. The workman can start at one end of the machine and fill all the bobbins with yarn, by the time he has finished this the first bobbinful will have been washed sufficiently and can be taken off and replaced with another quantity of yarn, and thus one by one the bobbins may be emptied and refilled, which means that a considerable amount of material can be got through in the course of a day. To avoid the labour of walking to and fro to fill and refill the bobbins, washing machines are constructed in which the trough is made in a circular form. The bobbins are placed at the ends of radial arms which are caused to revolve round over the trough, the workman is stationed constantly at one part of the circle, and as the arms pass him in their motion round the trough he takes off the washed hanks and puts on the unwashed hanks. By this machine he is saved a very considerable amount of labour, and is able to do his work in a more convenient manner. The yarn is well washed in such a machine. The trough may be entire or it may be divided into a number of compartments, each of which may contain a different kind of wash liquor if necessary. Of course it goes almost without saying that in all these machines the liquors in them may be heated up by means of steam pipes if required.
The chemicing and souring of the hanks does not call for special mention, beyond the fact that these operations are done in the same manner as warp bleaching. In Fig. 5 is shown Mather & Platt's yarn-bleaching kier, which is designed to bleach cotton yarn, either in hanks or in the warp forms, without removing it from the vessel into which it is first placed. The process is as follows: The hot alkali solution is circulated by means of a distributing pipe through the action of an injector or centrifugal pump to scour the yarn; then water is circulated by means of a centrifugal pump for washing. The chemic and sour liquors are circulated also by means of pumps, so that without the slightest disturbance to the yarn it is quickly and economically bleached.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Mather & Platt's Yarn-bleaching Kier.]
STAINS AND DAMAGES IN BLEACHED GOODS.
Some of the stains in bleached goods which are met are beyond the control of the bleacher to avoid, while others are due to various defects in the process. Now the subject of stains can only be dealt with in a very general way, because of the varying manner in which they arise. The recognition of the particular way in which the stains have been formed is sometimes difficult to discover. First, there are iron stains, which are the most common kind of stains that a bleacher is troubled with. These generally make their appearance in the form of red spots of greater or less extent. As a rule they are not visible before the pieces are fully bleached. Their origin is varied. Sometimes they arise from the machinery; if the kiers are not kept thoroughly whitewashed out, there is a great liability to produce iron stains.
Every other machine which is used in the process is made of iron, and should be kept free from rust, or the chances of stains are considerably increased. The water used in the bleaching must be free from iron. A small trace will not make much difference, but some waters contain a great deal of iron, so much so that they are absolutely unusable for bleaching purposes. Iron stains are often due to a very curious cause: the dropping of the oil used in the spinning or weaving machinery on to the cotton during the process of manufacture. This oil is often charged with iron derived from the wear and tear of the machinery, and which often gets fixed in the form of red spots of oxide on the fibre. Iron stains cannot readily be extracted.
Oil stains are also common. These take the form of bright yellow stains in various shapes, sometimes extending along the piece in streaks, at other times in patches in various places about the piece. Generally these oil stains do not make their appearance as soon as the piece is bleached, and often the bleacher sends out his goods quite white and apparently all right, and yet soon afterwards comes a complaint that the goods are stained yellow. One cause of these yellow oil stains can be traced to the use of paraffin wax in the sizing of the warps. In this case the stains are more or less streaky in form, and extend along the length of the piece. They are due to the fact that paraffin wax is not saponifiable by the action of the alkalies used in the process, and is therefore not extracted. When the goods are chemiced the chlorine acts upon the paraffin and forms chlorine compounds, which are acted upon by light, and turn yellow by exposure to that agent and to the atmosphere.
Paraffin, when used for the sizing of warps, may sometimes be completely extracted from the fabric, but this depends upon the proportion of tallow or other fat which is used in the composition of the sizing grease. If the paraffin is only present in small quantities, and the grease well mixed, then it may be possible to extract all the paraffin out of the fabric during the bleaching process, but if the paraffin is in large proportion, or the grease not well mixed, it is scarcely possible to extract it all out, and stains must be the result. These stains can hardly be considered the fault of the bleacher, but are due to the manufacturer of the cloth using cheap sizing compositions on his warps. There are no means which can be adopted before bleaching to ascertain whether paraffin exists in the cloth. If found to be present, the remedy which is the easiest practically is to saturate the cloth with a little olive oil, or better, pale oleic acid. Allow the fatty matter to soak well in, and then boil the goods in a little caustic soda. Another cause of oil stains is the use of mineral oils in the lubrication of cotton machinery. These mineral oils partake of the nature of paraffin in their properties, and therefore they are unsaponifiable by the action of alkalies. Like paraffin wax, they resist the bleaching process, and much in the same manner produce stains. Oil stains show themselves in various forms--sometimes as spots.
These may be due to the splashing of oil from the spindles during the process of spinning, or they may be in patches of a comparatively large size over the pieces.
These are perhaps due to the oil dropping on to the piece during the process of weaving when in the loom. The oils used for the lubrication of spinning and weaving machinery should contain a fair proportion of some fatty oil, such as olive or rape or cocoanut oil. Not less than 10 per cent. should be used. More would be better, but the cost of course would be greater and oil is an item with spinners and manufacturers.
Stains are occasionally due to other causes rather too numerous to be dealt with in detail, and sometimes these stains only appear once in a lifetime, and often do not make their appearance during the bleaching process, but only in after dyeing or calico printing processes in curious ways the causes of which are very baffling to find out.
CHAPTER III.
DYEING MACHINERY AND DYEING MANIPULATIONS.
Cotton is dyed in a variety of forms: raw, loose cotton, partly manufactured fibre in the form of slubbing or sliver, spun fibres or yarns wound in cop or bobbin forms, in hanks or skeins and in warps, and lastly in the form of woven pieces. These different forms necessitate the employment of different forms of machinery and different modes of handling; it is evident to the least unobservant that it would be quite impossible to subject slubbing or sliver to the same treatment as yarn or cloth, otherwise the slubbing would be destroyed and rendered valueless.
In the early days all dyeing was done by hand in the simplest possible contrivances, but during the last quarter of a century there has been a great development in the quantity of dyeing that has been done, and this has really necessitated the application of machinery, for hand work could not possibly cope with the amount of dyeing now done. Consequently there has been devised during the past two decades a great variety of machines for dyeing every description of textile fabrics, some have not been found a practical success for a variety of reasons and have gone out of use, others have been successful and are in use in dye-works.
HAND DYEING.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Rectangular Dye-tank.] [Illustration: FIG.
7.--Round Dye-tub.]
Dyeing by hand is carried on in the simplest possible appliances; much depends upon whether the work can be done at the ordinary temperature or at the boil. Figs. 6 and 7 show respectively a rectangular vat and a round tub much in use in dye-houses. These are made of wood, but copper dye-vats are also made. These may be used for all kinds of material, loose fibre, yarns or cloth. In the case of loose fibre this is stirred about either with poles or with rakes, care being taken to turn every part over and over and open out the masses of fibre as much as possible in order to avoid matting or clotting together. In the case of yarns or skeins, these are hung on sticks resting on the edges of the tub or vat. These sticks are best made of hickory, but ash or beech or any hard wood that can be worked smooth and which does not swell much when treated with water may be used. The usual method of working is to hang the skein on the stick, spreading it out as much as possible, then immerse the yarn in the liquor, lift it up and down two or three times to fully wet out the yarn, then turn the yarn over on the stick and repeat the dipping processes, then allow to steep in the dye-liquor.
This is done with the batch of yarn that is to be dyed at a time. When all the yarn has been entered into the dye-bath, the first stickful is lifted out, the yarn turned over and re-entered in the dye-liquor, this operation is carried out with all the sticks of yarn until the cotton has become dyed of the required depth. In the case of long rectangular vats it is customary for two men, one on each side of the vat to turn the yarns, each man taking charge of the yarn which is nearest to him.
The turning over one lot of yarn is technically called "one turn" and the dyer often gives "three turns" or "four turns" as may be required.
Woven goods may be dyed in the tub or vat, the pieces being drawn in and out by poles, but the results are not altogether satisfactory and it is preferable to use machines for dyeing piece goods.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Section of Dye-vat.]
Plain tubs or vats, such as those shown in Figs. 6 and 7, are used for dyeing, and otherwise treating goods in the cold, or at a lukewarm heat, when the supply of hot water can be drawn from a separate boiler. When, however, it is necessary to work at the boil, then the vat must be fitted with a steam coil. This is best laid along the bottom in a serpentine form. Above the pipe should be an open lattice-work bottom, which, while it permits the free circulation of boiling water in the vat, prevents the material being dyed from coming in contact with the steam pipe. This is important if uniform shades are to be dyed, for any excessive heating of any portion of the bath leads to stains being produced on the material in that part of the bath. Fig. 8 shows a vat fitted with a steam pipe. That portion of the steam pipe which passes down at the end of the vat is in a small compartment boxed off from the main body of the vat, so that no part of the material which is being dyed can come in contact with it. A closed steam coil will, on the whole, give the best results, as then no weakening of the dye-liquor can take place through dilution by the condensation of the steam. Many dye-vats are, however, fitted with perforated, or, as they are called, open steam coils, in which case there is, perhaps, better circulation of the liquor in the dye-vat, but as some of the steam must condense, there is a little dilution of the dye-liquor in the vat.
DYEING MACHINES.
Dye tubs and vats, such as those described above, have been largely superseded by machines in which the handling, or working of the materials being dyed is effected by mechanical means. There have been a large number of dyeing machines invented, some of these have not been found to be very practical, and so they have gone out of use. Space will not admit of a detailed account of every kind of machine, but only of those which are in constant use in dye-works.
=Dyeing Loose, or Raw Cotton.=--Few machines have been designed for this purpose, and about the only successful one is:
=Delahunty's Dyeing Machine.=--This is illustrated in Fig. 9. It consists of a drum made of lattice work, which can revolve inside an outer wooden casing. The interior of the revolving drum is fitted with hooks or fingers, whose action is to keep the material open. One segment of the drum is made to open, so that the loose cotton or wool to be dyed can be inserted. By suitable gearing the drum can be revolved; and the dye-liquor, which is in the lower half of the wooden casing, penetrates through the lattice work of the drum, and dyes the material contained in it. The construction of the machine is well shown in the drawing, while the mode of working is obvious from it and the description just given.
The machine is very successful, and well adapted for dyeing loose, or raw wool and cotton. The material may be scoured, bleached, dyed, or otherwise treated in this machine.
The Obermaier machine, presently to be described, may also be used for dyeing loose cotton or wool.
DYEING, SLUBBING, SLIVER OR CARDED COTTON AND WOOL.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Delahunty's Dyeing Machine.]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Obermaier Dyeing Machine.]
It is found in practice that the dyeing of loose wool or cotton is not altogether satisfactory--the impurities they naturally contain interfere with the purity of the shade they will take. Then again the dyes and mordants used in dyeing them are found to have some action on the wire of the carding engine through which they are passed; at any rate a card does not last as long when working dyed cotton or wool as when used on undyed cotton or wool fibres. Yet for the production of certain fancy yarns for weaving some special classes of fabrics, it is desirable to dye the cotton or wool before it is spun into thread. The best plan is undoubtedly to dye the fibre after it has been carded and partly spun into what is known as slubbing or sliver. All the impurities have been removed, the cotton fibres are laid, straight, and so it becomes much easier to dye. On the other hand, as it is necessary to keep the sliver or slubbing straight and level, no working about in the dye-liquors can be allowed to take place, and so such must be dyed in specially constructed machines, and one of the best of these is the Obermaier dyeing machine which is illustrated in Fig. 10. The Obermaier apparatus consists of a dye vat A. In this is placed a cage consisting of an inner perforated metal cylinder C, and an outer perforated metal cylinder D, between these two is placed the material to be dyed. C is in contact with the suction end of a centrifugal pump P, the delivery end of which discharges into the dye-vat A. The working of the machine is as follows: The slubbing or sliver is placed in the space between C and D rather tightly so that it will not move about. Then the inner cage is placed in the dye-vat as shown. The vat is filled with the dye-liquor which can be heated up by a steam pipe. The pump is set in motion, the dye liquor is drawn from A to C, and, in so doing, passes through the material packed in B and dyes it. The circulation of the liquor is carried on as long as experience shows to be necessary. The dye-liquor is run off, hot water is run in to wash the dyed material, and the pump is kept running for some time to ensure thorough rinsing; then the water is run off, and by keeping the pump running and air going through a certain amount of drying can be effected. This machine works very well, and, with a little experience, constant results can be obtained. The slubbing or sliver may be scoured, bleached, rinsed, dyed, washed, soaped, or otherwise treated without removing it from the machine, which is a most decided advantage.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Holliday's Yarn-dyeing Machine.]
=Holliday's Yarn-dyeing Machine.=--In Fig. 11 is given an illustration of a machine for dyeing yarn in the hank form made by Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons, of Huddersfield. The illustration gives a very good idea of the machine. It consists of a wooden dye-vat which can be heated by steam pipes in the usual way. Extending over the vat are a number of reels or bobbins; these are best made of wood or enamelled iron; these reels are in connection with suitable gearing so that they can be revolved. There is also an arrangement by means of which the reels can be lifted bodily in and out of the dye-vat for the purpose of taking on and off, "doffing," the hanks of yarn for the reels. A reel will hold about two pounds of yarn. The working of the machine is simple. The vat is filled with the requisite dye-liquor. The reels, which are lifted out of the vat, are then charged with the yarn, which has been previously wetted out. They are then set in revolution and dropped into the dye-vat and kept there until it is seen that the yarn has acquired the desired shade. The reels are lifted out and the hanks removed, when the machine is ready for another lot of yarn.