CHAPTER XIII.
THE SPECIAL SENSES.
SIGHT.
The eye is the organ through which we perceive, by the agency of light, all the varied dimensions relations, positions, and visible qualities of external objects.
The number, position, and perfection of the eyes, vary remarkably in different orders, in many instances corresponding to the mode of life, habitation, and food of the animal. A skillful anatomist may ascertain by the peculiar formation of the eye, without reference to the general physical structure, in what element the animal lives. Sight is one of the most perfect of the senses, and reveals to man the beauties of creation. The aesthetic sentiment is acknowledged to be the most refining element of civilized life. Painting, sculpture, architecture, and all the scenes of nature, from a tiny way-side flower to a Niagara, are subjects in which the poet's eye sees rare beauties to mirror forth in the rhythm of immortal verse.
In the vertebrates, the organs of vision are supplied with filaments from the second pair of cranial nerves. In mammalia, the eyes are limited to two in number, which in man are placed in circular cavities of the skull, beneath the anterior lobes of the cerebrum. Three membranes form the lining of this inner sphere of the eye, called respectively the Sclerotic, Choroid, and Retina.
The _Sclerotic_, or outer covering, is the white, firm membrane, which forms the larger visible portion of the eyeball. It is covered in front by a colorless, transparent segment, termed the _cornea_, which gives the eye its lustrous appearance. Within the sclerotic, and lining it throughout, is a thin, dark membrane termed the _Choroid_. Behind the cornea it forms a curtain, called the _iris_, which gives to the eye its color. The muscles of the iris contract or relax according to the amount of light received, thus enlarging or diminishing the size of the circular opening called the _pupil_. The _Retina_ is formed by the optic nerve, which penetrates the sclerotic and choroid and spreads out into a delicate, grayish, semi-transparent membrane. The retina is one of the most _essential_ organs of vision, and consists of two layers. A spheroidal, transparent body, termed the _crystalline lens_, is situated directly behind the pupil. It varies in density, increasing from without inward, and forms a perfect refractor of the light received. The space in front of the crystalline lens is separated by the iris into two compartments called respectively the _anterior_ and _posterior chambers_. The fluid contained within them, termed the _aqueous humor_, is secreted by the cornea, iris, and ciliary processes. The space behind the crystalline lens is occupied by a fluid, called the _vitreous humor_. This humor is denser than the other fluids and has the consistency of jelly, being perfectly transparent. "The function of the crystalline lens is to produce distinct perception of form and outline."[3] The transparent humors of the eye also contribute to the same effect, but only act as auxiliaries to the lens.
[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
The figure on the next page represents the course of the rays of light proceeding from an object _a b_, refracted by the lens, and forming the inverted image _x y_ on the screen. All rays of light proceeding from _b_ are concentrated at _y_, and those proceeding from _a_ converge at _x_. Rays of light emanating from the center of the object _a b_ pursue a parallel course, and form the center of the image. Rays of light passing through a double convex lens converge at a point called the _focus_. In the organ of vision, if perfect, the focus is on the retina, which serves as a screen to receive the image or impression. We have a distinct perception of the outline of a distant hill, and also of a book lying before us. The rays of light we receive from these objects cannot have the same focus. How, then, can we account for the evident accommodation of the eye to the varying distances? Various theories have been advanced to explain this adjustment; such as changes in the curvature of the cornea and lens; a movement of the lens, or a general change in the form of the eyeball, by which the axis may be lengthened or shortened.
[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
Two facts comprise all the positive knowledge which we possess on this subject. Every person is conscious of a muscular effort in directing the eye to a near object" as a book, and of fatigue, if the attention is prolonged. If, now, the eyes be directed to a distant object, there will result a sense of rest, or passiveness. By various experiments it has been proved that the accommodation or adjustment of the eye for near objects requires a muscular effort, but for distant objects the muscles are in an essentially passive condition. An increase in the convexity of the crystalline lens is now admitted to be necessary for a distinct perception of near objects. We may give two simple illustrations, cited by Dr. Dalton in his recent edition of Human Physiology. If a candle be held near the front of an eye which is directed to a distant object, three reflected images of the flame will be seen in the eye, one on each of the anterior surfaces of the cornea and lens, and a third on the posterior surface of the latter. If the eye is directed to a near object, the reflection on the cornea remains unchanged, while that on the anterior surface of the lens gradually diminishes and approximates in size the reflection on the cornea, thus giving conclusive evidence that, in viewing a near object, the anterior surface of the crystalline lens become _more convex_, and at the same time approaches the cornea.
Five or six inches is the minimum limit of the muscular adjustment of the eye. From that point to all the boundless regions of space, to every star and nebulae which send their rays to our planet, human vision can reach. It is the sense by which we receive knowledge of the myriads of worlds and suns which circle with unfailing precision through infinite space.
HEARING.
[Illustration: Fig. 64.
Internal and external ear. 1. External ear. 2. Internal auditory meatus. 3. Tympanum. 4. Labyrinth.
5. Eustachian tube.]
Hearing depends upon the sonorous vibrations of the atmosphere. The waves of sound strike the sensitive portions of the ear, and their impressions upon the auditory nerves are termed the sensations of hearing. The ear is divided into three parts, called respectively the External, Middle, and Internal ear.
The external organs of hearing are two in number, and placed on opposite sides of the head. In most of the higher order of vertebrates, they are so situated as to give expression and proportion to the facial organs, and, at the same time, to suit the requirements of actual life.
The _External ear_ is connected with the interior part by a prolongation of its orifice, termed the _external auditory meatus_. In man, this gristly portion of the auditory apparatus is about one inch in length, lined by a continuation of the integument of the ear, and has numerous hairs on its surface, to prevent the intrusion of foreign substances.
Between the external MEATUS and the cavity of the middle ear is the _membrana tympani_, which is stretched across the opening like the head of a drum. The _tympanum_, or ear-drum, communicates with the pharynx by the _eustachian tube_, which is a narrow passage lined with delicate, ciliated epithelium. On the posterior portion it is connected with the _mastoid cells_. Three small bones are stretched across the cavity of the tympanum, and called, from their form, the _malleus, incus_ and _stapes_, or the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Agassiz mentions a fourth, which he terms the _os orbiculare_. Each wave of sound falling upon the membrana tympani, throws its molecules into vibrations which are communicated to the chain of bones, which, in turn, transmits them to the membrane of the _foramen ovale_. The three muscles which regulate the tension of these membranes are termed the _tensor tympani, laxator tympani_, and _stapedium tympani._
The _Labyrinth_, or _Internal_ ear, is a complicated cavity, consisting of three portions termed the _vestibule, cochlea_, and _semi-circular canals_. The vestibule is the central portion and communicates with the other divisions. The labyrinth is filled with a transparent fluid, termed _perilymph_, in which are suspended, in the vestibules and canals, small membranous sacs, containing a fluid substance, termed _endolymph_ (sometimes called _vitrine auditive_ from its resemblance to the vitreous humor of the eye). The filaments of the auditory nerve penetrate the membranous tissues of these sacs, and also of those suspended at the commencement of the semi-circular canals. These little sacs are supposed to be the seat of hearing, and to determine, in some mysterious way, the quality, intensity and pitch of sounds.
The determination of the _direction_ of sound is a problem of acoustics.
Some have contended that the arrangement of the semi-circular canals is in some way connected with this sensation. But this supposition, together with the theory of the transmission of sound through the various portions of the cranial bones, has been exploded.
From the foregoing description, it will be seen that the labyrinth and tympanum are the most essential parts of the organs of hearing. In delicacy and refinement this sense ranks next to sight. The emotions of beauty and sublimity, excited by the warbling of birds and the roll of thunder, are scarcely distinguishable from the intense emotions arising from sight. It is a remarkable fact, that the refinement or cultivation of these senses is always found associated. Those nations which furnish the best artists, or have the highest appreciation of painting and sculpture, produce the most skillful musicians, those who reduce music to a science.
SMELL.
[Illustration: Fig. 65.
1. Frontal sinus. 2. Nasal bone. 3. Olfactory ganglion and nerves. 4. Nasal branch of the fifth pair. 5. Spheno-palatine ganglion.
6. Soft palate. 7. Hard palate, _a_.
Cerebrum, _b_. Anterior lobes, _c_. Corpus callosum. _d_. Septum lucidum. _f_. Fornix.
_g_. Thalami optici. _h_. Corpora striata.]
Next in order of delicacy, and more closely allied with the physical functions, is the sense of smell. Delicate perfumes, or the fragrance of a flower, impart an exhilarating sensation of delight, while numerous odors excite a feeling of disgust. The organ of smell is far less complicated in its structure than the eye or the ear. It consists of two cavities having cartilaginous walls, and lined with a thick mucous coat, termed the _pituitary membrane_, over which are reflected the olfactory nerves. Particles of matter, too minute to be visible even through the microscope, are detached from the odorous body and come in contact with the nerves of smell, which transmit the impressions or impulses thus received to the brain. Fig. 65 shows the distribution of the olfactory nerves in the nasal passages. The nose is supplied with two kinds of filaments which are termed respectively nerves of _special_ and nerves of _general sensation_. Compared with the lower animals, especially with those belonging to the carnivorous species, the sense of smell in man is feeble. The sensation of smell is especially connected with the pleasures and necessities of animal life.
TASTE.
The sense of taste is directly connected with the preservation and nutrition of the body. A delicious flavor produces a desire to eat a savory substance. Some writers on hygiene have given this sense an instinctive character, by assuming that all articles having an agreeable taste are suitable for diet. The nerves of taste are distributed over the surface of the tongue and palate, and their minute extremities terminate in well developed _papillae_. These _papillae_ are divided into three classes, termed, from their microscopic appearance, _filiform_, _fungiform_ and _circumvallate_. The organ of taste is the mucous membrane which covers the back part of the tongue and the palate.
The papillae of the tongue are large and distinct, and covered with separate coats of epithelium. The filiform papillae are generally long and pointed and are found over the entire surface of the tongue. The fungiform are longer, small at the base and broad at the end. The circumvallate are shaped like an inverted V and are found only near the root of the tongue; the largest of this class of papillae have other very small papillae upon their surfaces. It is now pretty satisfactorily established that the circumvallate, or fungiform papillae are the only ones concerned in the special sense of taste.
The conditions necessary to taste are, that the substance be in solution either by artificial means, or by the action of the saliva; and that it be brought in contact with the sensitive filaments imbedded in the mucous membrane. The nerves of taste are both _general_ and _special_ in their functions. If the general sensibility of the nerves of taste is unduly excited, the function of sensibility is lost for some time. If a peppermint lozenge is taken into the mouth, it strongly excites the general sensibilities of taste, and the power of distinguishing between special flavors is lost for a few moments. A nauseous drug may then be swallowed without experiencing any disagreeable taste.
Paralysis of the facial nerve often produces a marked effect in the sensibility of the tongue. Where this influence lies has not been fully explained; probably it is indirect, being produced by some alteration in the vascularity of the parts or a diminution of the salivary secretions.
TOUCH.
By the sense of touch, we mean the _general sensibility of the skin_.
Sensations of heat and cold are familiar illustrations of this faculty.
By the sense of touch, we obtain a knowledge of certain qualities of a body, such as form consistency, roughness, or smoothness of surface, etc. The tip of the tongue possesses the most acute sensibility of any portion of the body, and next in order are the tips of the fingers. The hands are the principal organs of tactile sensation. The nerves of general sensibility are distributed to every part of the cutaneous tissue. The contact of a foreign body with the back, will produce a similar _tactile_ sensation, as with the tips of the fingers. The sensation, however, will differ in _degree_ because the back is supplied with a much smaller number of sensitive filaments; in _quality_ it is the same.
CHAPTER XIV.
CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY.
By means of the nervous system, an intimate relation is maintained between mind and body, for nervous energy superintends the functions of both. The fibres of nervous matter are universally present in the organization, uniting the physical and spiritual elements of man's being. Even the minutest nerve-rootlets convey impressions to the dome of thought and influence the intellectual faculties. We recognize _muscular_ force, the strength of the body, _molecular_ force, molecules in motion, as heat, light, chemical force, electricity, and _nervous_ force, a certain influence which reacts between the animal functions and the cerebrum, thus connecting the conditions of the body with those of the mind. We cannot speak of the effects of mind or body separately, but we must consider their action and reaction upon each other, for they are always associated. There are many difficulties in understanding this relationship, some of which may be obviated by a study of the development of nervous matter, and its functions in the lower orders of organization.
Within the plant-cells is found a vital, vegetable substance termed bioplasm, or protoplasm; which furnishes the same nutritive power as the tissues of the polyp and jelly fish. Many families of animals have pulpy bodies, and slight instinctive motion and sensibility, and in proportion as the nervous system is developed, both of these powers are unfolded.
Plants have a low degree of sensibility, limited motion, respiratory and circulatory organs. Animals possess quicker perceptions and sensibilities, the power of voluntary motion, and, likewise a rudimental nervous system. Some articulates have no bony skeleton, their muscles being attached to the skin which constitutes a soft contracting envelope. One of the simplest forms of animal life in which a nervous system is found, is the five-rayed star-fish. In each ray there are filaments which connect with similar nerve-filaments from other rays, and form a circle around the digestive cavity. It probably has no conscious perception, and its movements do not necessarily indicate sensation or volition. In some worms a rudimentary nervous system is sparingly distributed to the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and, as in the star-fish, the largest nerve-filament is found around the esophagus, presiding over nutrition.
[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
A higher grade of organization requires a more complete arrangement of nervous substance. Stimulus applied to one organ is readily communicated to, and excites activity in another.