--SHAK. See _Johnson's Dict., w. Kersey_.
GENDERS.
Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex.
There are three genders; the _masculine_, the _feminine_, and the _neuter_.
The _masculine gender_ is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind; as, _man, father, king_.
The _feminine gender_ is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind; as, _woman, mother, queen_.
The _neuter gender_ is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female; as, _pen, ink, paper_.
Hence, names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine; and names of things inanimate, literally, neuter.
Masculine nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is changed to _ess_: as, _hunter, huntress_; _prince, princess_; _lion, lioness_.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The different genders in grammar are founded on the natural distinction of sex in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things.
In English, they belong only to nouns and pronouns; and to these they are usually applied, not arbitrarily, as in some other languages, but agreeably to the order of nature. From this we derive a very striking advantage over those who use the gender differently, or without such rule; which is, that our pronouns are easy of application, and have a fine effect when objects are personified. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand.
OBS. 2.--Many nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, _cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant_. The gender of these is usually determined by the context; and they are to be called masculine or feminine accordingly. To such words, some grammarians have applied the unnecessary and improper term _common gender_. Murray justly observes, "There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business of parsing can be effectually performed, without having recourse to a _common gender_."--_Gram._, 8vo. p. 39. The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to the learned languages; but with us, whose genders _distinguish objects in regard to sex_, it is plainly a solecism.
OBS. 3.--A great many of our grammars define gender to be "_the distinction of sex_," and then speak of a _common gender_, in which the two sexes are left _undistinguished_; and of the _neuter gender_, in which objects are treated as being of _neither sex_. These views of the matter are obviously inconsistent. Not genders, or a gender, do the writers undertake to define, but "gender" as a whole; and absurdly enough, too; because this whole of gender they immediately distribute into certain _other genders_, into genders of gender, or kinds of gender, and these not compatible with their definition. Thus Wells: "Gender is _the distinction_ of objects, with regard to sex. There are four genders;--the _masculine_, the _feminine_, the _common_, and the _neuter_."--_School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 49. [Those]
"Nouns which are applicable _alike to both sexes_, are of the _common_ gender."--_Ib._ This then is manifestly no gender under the foregoing definition, and the term _neuter_ is made somewhat less appropriate by the adoption of a third denomination before it. Nor is there less absurdity in the phraseology with which Murray proposes to avoid the recognition of the _common gender_: "Thus we may say, _Parents_ is a noun of the _masculine and feminine_ gender; _Parent_, if doubtful, is of the _masculine or feminine_ gender; and _Parent_, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the gender so ascertained."--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 39. According to this, we must have _five genders_, exclusive of that which is called _common_; namely, the _masculine_, the _feminine_, the _neuter_, the _androgynal_, and the _doubtful_.
OBS. 4.--It is plain that many writers on grammar have had but a confused notion of what a gender really is. Some of them, confounding gender with sex, deny that there are more than two genders, because there are only two sexes. Others, under a like mistake, resort occasionally, (as in the foregoing instance,) to an _androgynal_, and also to a _doubtful_ gender: both of which are more objectionable than the _common gender_ of the old grammarians; though this _common_ "distinction with regard to sex," is, in our language, confessedly, no distinction at all. I assume, that there are in English the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, and no more; and that every noun and every pronoun must needs be of some gender; consequently, of some one of these three. A gender is, literally, a sort, a kind, a sex. But genders, _in grammar_, are attributes of words, rather than of persons, or animals, or things; whereas sexes are attributes, not of words, but of living creatures. He who understands this, will perceive that the absence of sex in some things, is as good a basis for a grammatical distinction, as the presence or the difference of it in others; nor can it be denied, that the neuter, according to my definition, is a gender, is a distinction "in _regard_ to sex," though it does not embrace either of the sexes. There are therefore three genders, and only three.
OBS. 5.--Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually include both sexes; as, "Hast thou given _the horse_ strength?
hast thou clothed _his_ neck with thunder? Canst thou make _him_ afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of _his_ nostrils is terrible."--_Job_, xxxix, 19.
"Doth _the hawk_ fly by thy wisdom, and stretch _her_ wings toward the south? Doth _the eagle_ mount up at thy command, and make _her_ nest on high?"--_Ib._, ver. 26. These were called, by the old grammarians, _epicene_ nouns--that is, _supercommon_; but they are to be parsed each according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it.
OBS. 6.--The gender of words, in many instances, is to be determined by the following principle of universal grammar. Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy,[159] and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common term. Thus _parents_ is always masculine, and must be represented by a masculine pronoun, for the gender of a word is a property indivisible, and that which refers to the male sex, always takes the lead in such cases. If one say, "Joseph took _the young child and his mother_ by night, and fled with _them_ into Egypt," the pronoun _them_ will be masculine; but let "_his_" be changed to _its_, and the plural pronoun that follows, will be feminine. For the feminine gender takes precedence of the neuter, but not of the masculine; and it is not improper to speak of a young child without designating the sex. As for such singulars as _parent, friend, neighbour, thief, slave_, and many others, they are feminine when expressly applied to any of the female sex; but otherwise, masculine.
OBS. 7.--Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals which compose the assemblage. Thus a _congress_, a _council_, a _committee_, a _jury_, a _sort_, or a _sex_, if taken collectively, is neuter; being represented in discourse by the neuter pronoun _it_: and the formal plurals, _congresses, councils, committees, juries, sorts, sexes_, of course, are neuter also. But, if I say, "The committee disgraced _themselves_," the noun and pronoun are presumed to be masculine, unless it be known that I am speaking of a committee of females. Again: "The _fair sex, whose_ task is not to mingle in the labours of public life, have _their_ own part assigned _them_ to act."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 132. Here _sex_, and the three pronouns which have that word for their antecedent, are all feminine. Again: "_Each sex_, dressing _themselves_ in the clothes of the other."--_Wood's Dictionary_, v. _Feast of Purim_. Here _sex_, and the pronoun which follows, are masculine; because, the male sex, as well as the female, is here spoken of plurally.
OBS. 8.--To _persons_, of every description, known or unknown, real or imaginary, we uniformly ascribe sex.[160] But, as personality implies intelligence, and sex supposes some obvious difference, a _young child_ may be spoken of with distinction of sex or without, according to the notion of the speaker; as, "I went to see the _child_ whilst they were putting on _its cloaths_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 125. "Because the _child_ has no idea of any nurse besides _his_ own."--_Ib._, p. 153. To _brute animals_ also, the same distinction is generally applied, though with less uniformity. Some that are very small, have a gender which seems to be merely occasional and figurative; as, "Go to the _ant_, thou sluggard; consider _her_ ways, and be wise."--_Prov._, vi, 6. "The _spider_ taketh hold with _her_ hands, and is in kings' palaces."--_Prov._, xxx, 28. So the _bee_ is usually made feminine, being a little creature of admirable industry and economy. But, in general, irrational creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are spoken of as neuter; as, "And it became a _serpent_; and Moses fled from before _it_. And the Lord said unto Moses, Put forth thine hand, and take _it_ by the tail. And he put forth his hand and caught _it_, and _it_ became a rod in his hand."--_Exod._, iv, 3, 4. Here, although the word _serpent_ is sometimes masculine, the neuter pronoun seems to be more proper. So of some imaginary creatures: as, "_Phenix_, the fowl which is said to exist single, and to rise again from _its_ own ashes."--_Webster's Dict._ "So shall the _Phoenix_ escape, with no stain on _its_ plumage."--_Dr. Bartlett's Lect._, p. 10.
OBS. 9.--But this liberty of representing animals as of no sex, is often carried to a very questionable extent; as, "The _hare_ sleeps with _its_ eyes open."--_Barbauld_. "The _hedgehog_, as soon as _it_ perceives _itself_ attacked, rolls _itself_ into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but _its_ prickles to the foe."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 138. "The _panther_ is a ferocious creature: like the tiger _it_ seizes _its_ prey by surprise."--_Ib._, p. 102. "The _leopard_, in _its_ chace of prey, spares neither man nor beast."--_Ib._, p. 103. "If a man shall steal an _ox_, or a _sheep_, and kill _it_, or sell _it_."--_Exod._, xxii, 1. "A _dog_ resists _its_ instinct to run after a hare, because _it_ recollects the beating _it_ has previously received on that account. The _horse_ avoids the stone at which _it_ once has stumbled."--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 3. "The _racehorse_ is looked upon with pleasure; but it is the _warhorse_, that carries grandeur in _its_ idea."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 30.
OBS. 10.--The sexes are distinguished _by words_, in four different ways.
First, by the use of different terminations: as, _Jew, Jewess; Julius, Julia; hero, heroine_. Secondly, by the use of entirely different names: as, _Henry, Mary; king, queen_. Thirdly, by compounds or phrases including some distinctive term: as, _Mr. Murray, Mrs. Murray; Englishman, Englishwoman; grandfather, grandmother; landlord, landlady; merman, mermaid; servingman, servingmaid; man-servant, maid-servant; schoolmaster, schoolmistress; school-boy, school-girl; peacock, peahen; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; he-goat, she-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; male elephant, female elephant; male convicts, female convicts_. Fourthly, by the pronouns _he, his, him_, put for nouns masculine; and _she, her, hers_, for nouns feminine: as, "Ask _him_ that fleeth, and _her_ that escapeth, and say, What is done?"--_Jer._, xlviii, 19.
"O happy _peasant!_ Oh unhappy _bard!_ _His_ the mere tinsel, _hers_ the rich reward."--_Cowper_.
OBS. 11.--For feminine nouns formed by inflection, the regular termination is _ess_; but the manner in which this ending is applied to the original or masculine noun, is not uniform:--
1. In some instances the syllable _ess_ is simply added: as, _accuser, accuseress; advocate, advocatess; archer, archeress; author, authoress; avenger, avengeress; barber, barberess; baron, baroness; canon, canoness; cit, cittess;[161] coheir, coheiress; count, countess; deacon, deaconess; demon, demoness; diviner, divineress; doctor, doctoress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; guardian, guardianess; Hebrew, Hebrewess; heir, heiress; herd, herdess; hermit, hermitess; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess; Jew, Jewess; mayor, mayoress; Moabite, Moabitess; monarch, monarchess; pape, papess_; or, _pope, popess; patron, patroness; peer, peeress; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prior, prioress; prophet, prophetess; regent, regentess; saint, saintess; shepherd, shepherdess; soldier, soldieress; tailor, tailoress; viscount, viscountess; warrior, warrioress_.
2. In other instances, the termination is changed, and there is no increase of syllables: as, _abbot, abbess; actor, actress; adulator, adulatress; adulterer, adulteress; adventurer, adventuress; advoutrer, advoutress; ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress_; or, _anachoret, anachoress; arbiter, arbitress; auditor, auditress; benefactor, benefactress; caterer, cateress; chanter, chantress; cloisterer, cloisteress; commander, commandress; conductor, conductress; creator, creatress; demander, demandress; detractor, detractress; eagle, eagless; editor, editress; elector, electress; emperor, emperess_, or _empress; emulator, emulatress; enchanter, enchantress; exactor, exactress; fautor, fautress; fornicator, fornicatress; fosterer, fosteress_, or _fostress; founder, foundress; governor, governess; huckster, huckstress_; or, _hucksterer, hucksteress; idolater, idolatress; inhabiter, inhabitress; instructor, instructress; inventor, inventress; launderer, launderess_, or _laundress; minister, ministress; monitor, monitress; murderer, murderess; negro, negress; offender, offendress; ogre, ogress; porter, portress; progenitor, progenitress; protector, protectress; proprietor, proprietress; pythonist, pythoness; seamster, seamstress; solicitor, solicitress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; suitor, suitress; tiger, tigress; traitor, traitress; victor, victress; votary, votaress_.
3. In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing _or_ to _rix_; but some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred: as, _adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator, arbitratrix; coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress_, or _competitrix; creditor, creditrix; director, directress_, or _directrix; executor, executress_, or _executrix; inheritor, inheritress_, or _inheritrix; mediator, mediatress_, or _mediatrix; orator, oratress_, or _oratrix; rector, rectress_, or _rectrix; spectator, spectatress_, or _spectatrix; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutoress_, or _tutress_, or _tutrix; deserter, desertress_, or _desertrice_, or _desertrix_.
4. The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the termination: _amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain, chambermaid; duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer, sewster; sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower, widow_.
OBS. 12.--The proper names of persons almost always designate their sex; for it has been found convenient to make the names of women different from those of men. We have also some appellatives which correspond to each other, distinguishing the sexes by their distinct application to each: as, _bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boy, girl; bridegroom, bride; brother, sister; buck, doe; boar, sow; bull, cow; cock, hen; colt, filly; dog, bitch; drake, duck; earl, countess; father, mother; friar, nun; gander, goose; grandsire, grandam; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, woman; master, mistress_; Mister, Missis; (Mr., Mrs.;) _milter, spawner; monk, nun; nephew, niece; papa, mamma; rake, jilt; ram, ewe; ruff, reeve; sire, dam; sir, madam; sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; swain, nymph; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; youth, damsel; young man, maiden_.
OBS. 13.--The people of a particular country are commonly distinguished by some name derived from that of their country; as, _Americans, Africans, Egyptians, Russians, Turks_. Such words are sometimes called _gentile names_. There are also adjectives, of the same origin, if not the same form, which correspond with them. "Gentile names are for the most part considered as masculine, and the feminine is denoted by the gentile adjective and the noun _woman_: as, a _Spaniard_, a _Spanish woman_; a _Pole_, or _Polander_, a _Polish woman_. But, in a few instances, we always use a compound of the adjective with _man_ or _woman_: as, an _Englishman_, an _Englishwoman_; a _Welshman_, a _Welshwoman_; an _Irishman_, an _Irishwoman_; a _Frenchman_, a _Frenchwoman_; a _Dutchman_, a _Dutchwoman_: and in these cases the adjective is employed as the collective noun; as, _the Dutch, the French_, &c. A _Scotchman_, and a _Scot_, are both in use; but the latter is not common in prose writers: though some employ it, and these generally adopt the plural, _Scots_, with the definite article, as the collective term."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 70.
OBS. 14.--The names of things without life, used literally, are always of the neuter gender: as, "When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared galley; and, coming along side of her _ship_, entered _it_ without being seen by her."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "The _sun_, high as _it_ is, has _its_ business assigned; and so have the stars."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 138. But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war_. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, a _ship_, the _moon_, the _earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace_. Figurative gender is indicated only by the personal pronouns of the singular number: as, "When we say of the _sun, He_ is setting; or of a _ship, She_ sails well."--_L.
Murray_. For these two objects, the _sun_ and a _ship_, this phraseology is so common, that the literal construction quoted above is rarely met with.
OBS. 15.--When any inanimate object or abstract quality is distinctly personified, and presented to the imagination in the character of a living and intelligent being, there is necessarily a change of the gender of the word; for, whenever personality is thus ascribed to what is literally neuter, there must be an assumption of one or the other sex: as, "_The Genius of Liberty_ is awakened, and springs up; _she_ sheds her divine light and creative powers upon the two hemispheres. A great _nation_, astonished at seeing _herself_ free, stretches _her_ arms from one extremity of the earth to the other, and embraces the first nation that became so."--_Abbe Fauchet_. But there is an inferior kind of personification, or of what is called such, in which, so far as appears, the gender remains neuter: as, "The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe united: 'O _thou sword_ of the Lord! how long will it be ere _thou_ be quiet? put _thyself_ up into _thy_ scabbard, rest, and be still! How can _it_ be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given _it_ a charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore? there hath he appointed _it_.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 348. See _Jer._, xlvii, 6.
OBS. 16.--If what is called personification, does not always imply a change of gender and an ascription of sex, neither does a mere ascription of sex to what is literally of no sex, necessarily imply a personification; for there may be sex without personality, as we see in brute animals. Hence the gender of a brute animal personified in a fable, may be taken literally as before; and the gender which is figuratively ascribed to the _sun_, the _moon_, or a _ship_, is merely metaphorical. In the following sentence, _nature_ is animated and made feminine by a metaphor, while a lifeless object bearing the name of _Venus_, is spoken of as neuter: "Like that conceit of old, which declared that the _Venus of Gnidos_ was not the work of Praxiteles, since _nature herself_ had concreted the boundary surface of _its_ beauty."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. xxv.
OBS. 17.--"In personifications regard must be had to propriety in determining the gender. Of most of the passions and moral qualities of man the ancients formed deities, as they did of various other things: and, when these are personified, they are usually made male or female, according as they were gods or goddesses in the pagan mythology. The same rule applies in other cases: and thus the planet Jupiter will be masculine; Venus, feminine: the ocean, _Oce=anus_, masculine: rivers, months, and winds, the same: the names of places, countries, and islands, feminine."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 71.
OBS. 18.--These suggestions are worthy of consideration, but, for the gender which ought to be adopted in personifications, there seems to be no absolute general rule, or none which English writers have observed with much uniformity. It is well, however, to consider what is most common in each particular case, and abide by it. In the following examples, the sex ascribed is not that under which these several objects are commonly figured; for which reason, the sentences are perhaps erroneous:--
"_Knowledge_ is proud that _he_ has learn'd so much; _Wisdom_ is humble that _he_ knows no more."--_Cowper_.
"But hoary _Winter_, unadorned and bare, Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there; There _she_ assembles all her blackest storms, And the rude hail in rattling tempests forms."--_Addison_.
"_Her_ pow'r extends o'er all things that have breath, A cruel tyrant, and _her_ name is _Death_."--_Sheffield_.
CASES.
Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other words.
There are three cases; the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_.
The _nominative case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb: as, The _boy_ runs; _I_ run.
The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to _who_ or _what_ before it; as, "The boy runs."--_Who_ runs? "The _boy_." Boy is therefore here in the _nominative_ case.
The _possessive case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: as, The _boy's_ hat; _my_ hat.
The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative _s preceded by an apostrophe_; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in _s_, by adding _an apostrophe only_: as, singular, _boy's_; plural, _boys'_;--sounded alike, but written differently.
The _objective case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as, I know the _boy_, having seen _him_ at _school_; and he knows _me_.
The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to _whom_ or _what_ after it; as, "I know the boy."--I know _whom_? "The boy."
_Boy_ is therefore here in the _objective_ case.