OBS. 23.--On this point. Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence; that is, without admitting that "_than whom_" has ever been used by good writers. See _Brace's Gram._, p.
90. The former says, "The relative _usually_ follows _than_ in the objective case, _even when the nominative goes before_; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, _than_, at first had the force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative."--_Bullions, E.
Gram._, of 1843, p. 112. Again: "_A relative_ after _than_ is put in the objective case; as, 'Satan, than _whom_ none higher sat.' This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this case, some regard _than_ as a preposition. _It_ is probably only a case of simple _enallage_"--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, of 1849, p. 191. Prof. Fowler, in his great publication, of 1850, says of this example, "The expression should be, Satan, than _who_ None higher sat."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, --482, Note 2.
Thus, by one single form of _antiptosis_, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English.
OBS. 24.--Peirce's _new theory_ of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sentence ever is, or can be, in any wise, _elliptical_.
This is one of the "Two GRAND PRINCIPLES" on which the author says his "work is based."--_The Grammar_, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated _into English_ in order to be generally understood; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "_Without these grand points_, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE."--_Ib._ It follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writer, but counsels the learner to "spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the authority of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this theory, a nominative coming after _than_ or _as_, is in general to be accounted a _nominative absolute_; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author himself expresses it,) "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately preceded by _than, as_, or _not_, may be used _without an_ ASSERTER immediately depending on it for sense."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 195.
See also his "_Grammatical Chart_, Rule I, Part 2."
OBS. 25.--"Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, conditional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions; as, _if, lest, though, unless, except_; _require_, or _govern_ the subjunctive mood.
But in this they are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Crombie rightly observes, the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because the mood expresses contingency, _not because it follows the conjunction_: for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the following sentence: '_Though_ he _be_ displeased at it, I will bolt my door; and _let_ him break it open _if_ he _dare_:' may we not as well affirm, that _and_ governs the imperative mood, as that _though_ and _if_ govern the subjunctive?"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 321.
OBS. 26.--In the list of _correspondents_ contained in Note 7th below, there are some words which ought not to be called _conjunctions_, by the parser; for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word, does not necessarily determine its part of speech. Thus, _such_ is to be parsed as an adjective; _as_, sometimes as a pronoun; _so_, as a conjunctive adverb. And _only, merely, also_, and _even_, are sometimes conjunctive adverbs; as, "_Nor_ is this _only_ a matter of convenience to the poet, it is _also_ a source of gratification to the reader."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 166. _Murray's, Gram._, i, 362. Professor Bullions will have it, that these adverbs may relate to _nouns_--a doctrine which I disapprove. He says "_Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also_, and perhaps _a few others_, are sometimes _joined to substantives_; as, 'Not _only_ the men, but the women _also_ were present.'"--_English Gram._, p.
116. _Only_ and _also_ are here, I think, conjunctive adverbs; but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns; and, that these words are adjuncts to the nouns _men_ and _women_, rather than the verb _were_, which is once expressed and once understood, I see no sufficient reason to suppose. Some teachers imagine, that an adverb of this kind qualifies the _whole clause_ in which it stands. But it would seem, that the relation of such words to verbs, participles, or adjectives, according to the common rule for adverbs, is in general sufficiently obvious: as, "The perfect tense not _only refers_ to what is past, but _also conveys_ an allusion to the present time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 70. Is there any question about the true mode of parsing "_only_" and "_also_" here? and have they not in the other sentence, a relation similar to what is seen here?
NOTES TO RULE XXII.
NOTE I.--When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it. Thus, in stead of saying, "He has made alterations and additions to the work,"
say, "He has made alterations _in_ the work, and additions _to it_;"
because the relation between _alterations_ and _work_ is not well expressed by _to_.
NOTE II.--In general, any two terms which we connect by a conjunction, should be the same in kind or quality, rather than different or heterogeneous. Example: "The assistance was welcome, and seasonably afforded."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 249. Better: "The assistance was welcome, and _it was_ seasonably afforded." Or: "The assistance was _both seasonable and welcome_."
NOTE III.--The conjunctions, copulative or disjunctive, affirmative or negative, must be used with a due regard to their own import, and to the true idiom of the language. Thus, say, "The general bent _or_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form;" and not, with Lowth and Churchill, "The general bent _and_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form."--_Short Introd._, p. 60; _New Gram._, p. 113. So, say, "I cannot deny _that_ there are perverse jades;" and not, with Addison, "I cannot deny _but_ there are perverse jades."--_Spect._, No. 457. Again, say, "I feared _that_ I should be deserted;" not, "_lest_ I should be deserted."
NOTE IV.--After _else, other,[437] otherwise, rather_, and all English _comparatives_, the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than_--a word which is appropriated to this use solely: as, "Style is nothing _else than_ that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 92. "What we call fables or parables are no _other than_ allegories."--_Ib._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243. "We judge _otherwise_ of them _than_ of ourselves."--_R. Ainsworth_. "The premeditation should be of things _rather than_ of words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 262. "Is not the life _more than_ meat?"--_Com. Bible_. "Is not life a _greater_ gift _than_ food?"--_Campbell's Gospels_.
NOTE V.--Relative pronouns, being themselves a species of connective words, necessarily exclude conjunctions; except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together; that is, one to the other. Example of error: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _and which_, in my opinion, he possesses beyond _all poets_, is tenderness."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 439. Better: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _an excellence_ which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all _other_ poets, is tenderness."
NOTE VI.--The word _that_, (as was shown in the fifth chapter of Etymology,) is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it, and a conjunction in respect to what follows it--a construction which, for its anomaly, ought to be rejected. For example: "_In the mean time_ THAT the Muscovites were complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."--_Life of Charles XII_. Better thus: "_While_ the Muscovites were _thus_ complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."
NOTE VII.--The words in each of the following pairs, are the proper _correspondents_ to each other; and care should be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence:
1. To _though_, corresponds _yet_; as, "_Though_ he were dead, _yet_ shall he live."--_John_, xi, 25. 2. To _whether_, corresponds _or_; as, "_Whether_ it be greater _or_ less."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 77.
3. To _either_, corresponds _or_; as, "The constant indulgence of a declamatory manner, is not favourable _either_ to good composition, _or_ [to] good delivery."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 334.
4. To _neither_, corresponds _nor_; as, "John the Baptist came _neither_ eating bread _nor_ drinking wine."--_Luke_, vii, 33. "Thou shalt _neither_ vex a stranger _nor_ oppress him."--_Exod._, xxii, 21.
5. To _both_, corresponds _and_; as, "I am debtor _both_ to the Greeks _and_ to the Barbarians, _both_ to the wise _and_ to the unwise."--_Rom._, i, 14.
6. To _such_, corresponds _as_; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun;) as, "An assembly _such as_ earth saw never."--_Cowper_.
7. To _such_, corresponds _that_; with, a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "The difference is _such that_ all will perceive it."
8. To _as_, corresponds _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of degree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper _as_ white _as_ snow."--_2 Kings_. v. 27.
9. To _as_, corresponds _so_; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness: as, "_As_ two are to four, _so_ are six to twelve."--"_As_ the tree falls, _so_ it must lie."
10. _So_ is used before _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by comparison: as, "How can you descend to a thing _so_ base _as_ falsehood?"
11. _So_ is used before _as_; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree: as, "No lamb was e'er _so_ mild _as_ he."--_Langhorne_.
"Relatives are not _so_ useful in language _as_ conjunctions."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, p. 126.
12. To _so_, corresponds _as_; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence: as, "We ought, certainly, to read blank verse _so as_ to make every line sensible to the ear"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 332.
13. To _so_, corresponds _that_; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "No man was _so_ poor _that_ he could not make restitution."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 113. "_So_ run _that_ ye may obtain."--_1 Cor._, ix, 24.
14. To _not only_, or _not merely_, corresponds _but, but also_, or _but even_; as, "In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed _not only_ not infamous, _but_ [even] absolutely honourable."--_Maunder's Gram._, p.
15. "These are questions, _not_ of prudence _merely, but_ of morals _also_."--_Dymond's Essay_, p. 82.
NOTE VIII.--"When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second; but no word following the former, can [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided: "Tones are different both from emphasis and [_from_] pauses."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 250.
"Though both the intention and [_the_] purchase are now past."--_Ib._, ii, 24.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII.
EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--TWO TERMS WITH ONE.
"The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second."--_Inst._, p. 171.
[FORMULE,--Not proper, because the preposition _to_ is used with joint reference to the two adjectives _different_ and _inferior_, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, "When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior _to it_."]
"A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 30. "I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes."--_Student's Manual_, p.
220. "ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained."--_Webster's Dict._ "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed."--_Ld. Lyttelton_. "I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge."--_Spect._, No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?"--_Baxter's Saints' Rest_. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. "We may, we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye."--_Ib._, p. 352. "Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess."--_Sedgwick's Econ._, p. 95. "He is a much better grammarian than they are."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."--ADDISON, ON MEDALS: _in Priestly's Gram._, p. 200. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition?"--_Bolingb. Phil. Es._, iv, --19. "The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law."--_Spectator_, No. 564; _Ware's Gram._, p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 168. "In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable."--_lb._, p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully."--_Ib._, p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event."--_lb._, p. 211.
UNDER NOTE II.--HETEROGENEOUS TERMS.
"Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust."--_Lit. Conv._, p. 15. "Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things."--DR. LIEBER: _ib._, p. 64. "Whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency."--_Ib._, p. 128. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."--_Murray's Gram._, i. 206. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others."--_Ib._, i. p. 30. "It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established."--_Ib._, i, 59. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 126. "Facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on."--_Ib._, p. 233. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind."--_Ib._, p. 41. "If the description be too general, and divested of circumstances."--_Ibid._ "He gained nothing further than to be commended."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place."--VETHAKE: _Lit. Conv._, p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 15. "Slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses."--_Webster's El.
Spelling-Book_, p. 47. "Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."--_Influence of Literature_. Vol. ii, p, 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 376.
"We've both the field and honour won; The foe is profligate, and run."--_Hudibras_, p. 93.
UNDER NOTE III.--IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS.
"_The_ is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Brace's_, 9. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lowth's_, 14; _Fisk's_, 53; _Merchant's_, 24; and others. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p.
137. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form."--_Ib._ "The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."--_Day's Gram._, p. 88. "In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 85.
"I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it."--_Spect._, No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them."--_Ib._, No.
457. "I doubt not but such objections as these will be made."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 169. "I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. vi. "It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."--_Idler_, No.
72. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 290. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?"--_James_, iii, 12.
"Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence."--_Swift, Examiner_, No. 24. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop."--_Pope, to Swift_, Let. 80. "The terms rich or poor enter not into their language."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon."--_Music of Nature_, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 110. "The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace."--_Matt._, xx, 21.
UNDER NOTE IV.--OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN.