_Sources of Manufactured Linens_
Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, Russia, United States.
MANUFACTURED LINENS
_Damasks and Napkins_ Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Belgium.
_Towelings_ Scotland, Ireland, Germany, United States, Russia.
_Glass Checks_ Ireland.
_Canvas_ Scotland, Ireland.
_Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces_ Ireland, Germany, France.
_Towels_ Germany, Scotland, Ireland, Austria, U. S. (union).
_Linen Sheetings_ Ireland, Belgium, France, Scotland.
_Blouse or Dress Linens_ Ireland, Scotland.
_Bleached Waist Linens_ Ireland, France, Belgium.
_Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc._ Germany, France, Japan, Madeira Islands, Island of Teneriffe.
FOOTNOTE:
[18] The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers, and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
CHAPTER XVI
HEMP
[Illustration: LOADING HEMP IN MANILA]
=Hemp= is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant. It grows principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy, Asia, India, the Philippines, Japan, and some parts of the United States--Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that part near the Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment is similar to that for the flax plant, except that most of the work is done by machinery. Considered chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains a considerable amount of woody matter, differing in this respect from cotton. Its properties are color (pearl gray, with green or yellow tints), fineness (which depends upon the quality of the hemp; it is usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile strength (which is considerable and greater than that of flax). Its best qualities are its slight luster and its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is difficult to bleach, it is used chiefly in making string, cord, ropes, etc.
=Sisal Hemp.= Sisal hemp is a variety that grows extensively in Central America and the West Indies. The plant, the _agava rigida_, is similar to what is known in this country as the century plant. The fiber is found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks. The common hemp on the other hand is found closely surrounding the woody part of the stem. The fiber of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by machines.
=Manila Hemp.= Manila hemp is obtained in the Philippines. The plant belongs to the banana family and grows as large as a small tree. The hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the trunk of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but stronger than Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp is the strongest; that of Italian hemp the finest.
[Illustration: FIELD OF SISAL HEMP]
=Jute.= Jute is the name given to the fibers found in certain plants which grow principally in India, and the East Indian Islands. The common jute comes principally from the province of Bengal, India, where it was first known to science in 1725. The term jute was first applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The plant is cut just about the time when it appears in full flower. The stalks are then bundled and retted by steeping in pools of stagnant water.
Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable fibers in the manufacturing scale, being inferior to cotton and flax. Hemp is stronger than jute. Jute becomes weak when exposed to dampness.
It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton, flax, hemp, and woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties are made into coarse fabrics--sacks, packing cloth, etc., while the finer varieties, in which the undesirable quality of growing darker with age is less apparent, are used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes, for which they are very suitable.
CHAPTER XVII
SILK
=Silk.= The silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of several species of insects. These insects resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars. At a certain period of its existence the silkworm gives off a secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds it about its body.
[Illustration: MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS]
It takes about three days for the worm to form the cocoon. After the cocoon has been formed the silkworm passes from the form of a caterpillar into a moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and flies away. It is very important that the moth should not be allowed to escape from the cocoon; the mere breaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing the chrysalis by heat.
There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render them of commercial value. The principal species is the mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silkworms. The silk produced by the wild worms of China and India is called "tussah" (or "tussur").
The silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms and is used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet, plush, etc.
The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of the European cocoons are bright yellow, though some are white. The Eastern cocoons, on the other hand, are mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks are for the most part ecru color, though some are pale green. The color, except in the wild silks, is derived from the gum which is secreted by the worm, and with which the fibers are stuck together.
This gum comprises from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk is dyed. All silks except the wild silks, after the gum is removed, are from white to cream in color. The tussah, or wild silks, remain an ecru color.
[Illustration: REELING RAW SILK]
The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in the care of the moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons--this being the succession of changes. That is, the moth lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm during the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about the person of the raiser. After a time these eggs hatch out worms, tiny things hardly larger than the head of a pin. After the worms are hatched they require constant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves till they reach maturity. They are then about three inches in length, and spin their cocoons from a fiber and gum which they secrete. When the cocoons are spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them. The cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises killed, generally by heat, before they can again become moths.
=Raw Silk.= The cocoons are next sent to the reelers or filatures. A number of cocoons, greater or less, according to the size of thread desired, are placed in a basin of hot water, which softens the gum.
After the outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free, the ends are collected through a guide and are wound upon a reel. As the silk cools and dries, the gum hardens, sticking the fibers from the different cocoons together in one smooth thread varying in size according to the number of cocoons used. After the silk has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks and sent to America and other countries as raw silk.
Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in China, Japan, and Italy. It is also produced to a large extent in Italy, Turkey, and Greece, also France and Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only carried on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government to the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.
Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms in the United States. All have failed on account of the high price of labor necessary to feed the worms.
=Throwing.= The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk.
We import our raw silk chiefly from Italy, China, and Japan. It is handled here first by the "throwster," who winds it from the skein and makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.
Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and called singles is often used to make warps (that is, the threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth) for piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed. Singles are also sometimes used for filling (that is, cross threads) in very thin fabrics.
Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two kinds, "tram"
and "organzine." Tram silk is made by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads. It is heavier than organzine and is used for filling.
Organzine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly twisted threads. It is used for warp. Crepe yarn is used in making crepe, chiffon, and for other purposes. It is very hard twisted thread, generally tram, from forty to eighty turns per inch.
Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk, putting a large number of ends together, giving them a slack twist, then doubling and twisting in the reverse direction with a slack twist.