CORRUPTIONS AND CONTRACTIONS.
Corruptions may be divided broadly into two kinds, those which proceed from a desire to improve the sound of a name, and those which proceed from a desire to make some kind of sense out of it. The former, which we may call phonetic, generally consists in the introduction of a letter, either to give more of what we may call "backbone" to a word, or else to make it run more smoothly. For the former purpose _b_ or _p_ is often used--thus we have, even in Anglo-Saxon times, _trum_ made into _trump_, _sem_ into _semp_, and _emas_ into _embas_. So among our names we have _Dumplin_, no doubt for Dumlin (O.G. Domlin), _Gamble_ for Gamel, and _Ambler_ for Ameler, though in these names something of both the two principles may apply. In a similar manner we have _glas_ made into _glast_ in Glaestingabyrig, now Glastonbury (p. 88). So _d_ seems sometimes to be brought in to strengthen the end of a word, and this, it appears to me, may be the origin of our names _Field_, _Fielding_, _Fielder_. The forms seem to show an ancient stem, but as the word stands, it is difficult to make anything out of it, whereas, as Fiell, Fielling, &c., the names would fall in with a regular stem, as at p.
50. So also our name _Hind_ may perhaps be the same, assuming a final _d_, as another name, _Hine_, which, presuming the _h_ not to be organic, may be from the unexplained stem _in_ or _ine_, as in the name of Ina, King of Wessex. In which case _Hyndman_ might be the same name as _Inman_. Upon the same principle it may be that we have the name _Nield_ formed upon the Celtic Niel. So also _f_ appears to be sometimes changed for a similar purpose into _p_, as in _Asprey_ and _Lamprey_ for Asfrid (or Osfrid) and Landfrid. The ending _frid_ commonly becomes _frey_ (as in Godfrey, Humphrey, Geoffrey), and when we have got Asfrey and Lanfrey (and we have Lanfrei in the _Liber Vitae_), the rest is easy.
The most common phonetic intrusion is that of _r_, and one of the ways in which it most frequently occurs is exhibited in the following group of names: _Pendgast_, _Pendegast_, _Prendergast_, _Prendergrass_.
Pendgast is, I take it, an ancient compound, from the stem _bend_ (p.
44), with _gast_, hospes. It first takes a medial vowel between the two words of the compound, and becomes Pend-e-gast. Then _e_ naturally becomes _er_, passing the very slight barrier which English pronunciation affords, and the name, having become Pendergast, finds the need of a second _r_ to balance the first, and becomes Prendergast. In the last name, Prendergrass, the other principle comes in, and a slight effort is made to give a shade of meaning to the word.[43] One of the features in men's names, it will be seen, is that as they have (differently to what is the case with regard to the words of the language) become crystallised in all stages, one is sometimes permitted to see the various steps of a process.
Now it is in such a way as that described above that the Anglo-Saxon name Ealdermann (whence our name _Alderman_) has, according to my opinion, been formed. There is another Anglo-Saxon name, Ealdmann, an ancient compound. Now if you, as in the previous case, introduce a medial vowel, and make it Eald-e-mann, there is virtually nothing left between that and Ealdermann. Such a name, as derived from the office, would be impossible as a regular Anglo-Saxon name. The only other alternative would be that he had been so called as a _sobriquet_ by his office till it had superseded his regular name. And there does appear to have been such a case, viz., that of a man called Preost who _was_ a priest, but the way which I have suggested seems to me to account more easily for the name. From a similar origin I take to be our name _Ackerman_, and the present German _Ackermann_. There is an Anglo-Saxon aecemann (p. 96), from which, on the principle described above, they might be derived. So also _Sigournay_ may be formed in a similar manner from an old German name Siginiu (_niu_, "new," perhaps in the sense of "young"), and _Alderdice_ from an old Frankish Aldadeus (_deus_, servant).
I have taken Prendergast for Pendgast as an illustration of the intrusion of _r_, and there is even in Anglo-Saxon times an example of the very same word as so treated. This is the name Prentsa (p. 101), (whence our _Prentiss_), and which I take to be properly Pentsa. This would bring it in as a regular Anglo-Saxon stem (_Cf._ Penda, Pender, Penduald, Pendwine), whereas otherwise it is difficult to know what to make of it. Among English surnames thus treated we have _Bellringer_ for Bellinger, _Sternhold_ for Stonhold (p. 63), _Proudfoot_ for _Puddefoot_ (_bud_, messenger), and possibly _Cardwell_ for the Anglo-Saxon Cadweal.[44] On the same principle I think that _Wordsworth_, a name of local origin, may be, with an intrusive _r_, the same as Wodsworth or Wadsworth (Wad's property or estate). There is certainly a stem _wurd_ (supposed to mean fate, destiny), in ancient names, but it is of rare occurrence, and I do not know of it in English names, though we have _Orde_, which I take to be from the Scandinavian form of it. On the other hand we have an instance in Anglo-Saxon times of the reverse process, viz., the elision of _r_, in the case of Wihtbrord, Minister of Edward the Elder, who, though he spells his names both ways, spells it more frequently Wihtbrod, the other being no doubt etymologically the correct form (_brord_, sword), though euphony is certainly promoted by the elision. This may probably be the origin of our name _Whitbread_, with the variation _Wheatbread_.
The intrusion of _d_ has had the effect of changing a man's name into a woman's in two cases, _Mildred_ and _Kindred_. The former should be properly Milred, answering to an Anglo-Saxon Milred, and the latter should be Kenred, answering to the German Conrad; Mildryd and Cynedryd were, and could only be, Anglo-Saxon women's names.
On the other hand, the loss of an _r_ has had such a disastrous effect in the case of an American _Bedbug_ as to compel him to apply, like his English namesake, for a change of name. For while, in America, all insects of the beetle tribe are called by the name of "bug," the "bedbug" is that particular insect which is a "terror by night," so that the name was pointedly disagreeable. It ought properly to be, I doubt not, Bedburg, a name of local origin, and the same as Bedborough.
Before going on to deal with the corruptions which originate in the desire to make some kind of sense out of a name, I propose to refer briefly to some of the changes and contractions which are more strictly in accordance with regular phonetic principles. I have referred at p. 9 to a final _g_ as opposed to the English ear, and to two different ways in which it is got rid of, viz., by changing it into _dg_, and by dropping it altogether. There is yet a third way, that of changing it into _f_, as in Anglo-Saxon _genug_, English _enough_. And we can show examples of all these in the same name, from the ancient stem _wag_, probably signifying to wave, brandish, as in the name Wagbrand ("wave-sword"), in the genealogy of the Northumbrian kings. For we have the name in all four forms, _Wagg_, _Way_, _Wadge_, _Waugh_ (Waff). The common ending in Teutonic names of _wig_, war, often, anciently even, softened into _wi_, most commonly in such case becomes in our names _way_. Thus we have _Alloway_ from an ancient Alewih, _Chattoway_ from Ceatewe, _Dalloway_ from Daliweh, _Galloway_ from Geilwih, _Garroway_ from Gerwi, _Hathaway_ from Hathuwi, _Kennaway_ from Kenewi, _Lanoway_ from Lantwih, _Reddoway_ from Redwi, and _Ridgway_ from Ricwi. I cite this as a case in which a number of coincidences prove a principle, which the reader, if he confined his attention to one particular case, might be disposed to question. We also generally drop the _g_ in the middle of a word in such names as _Payne_, from A.S. Pagen,[45] _Wain_ from A.S. Wahgen, _Gain_ from A.S. Gagen, _Nail_ from A.S. Negle. So also in _Sibbald_ for Sigebald, _Sibert_ for Sigebert, _Seymore_ for Sigimar, _Wyatt_ for Wighad, &c. There is also a frequent dropping of _d_, though I think that in this case the names have more frequently come down to us from ancient times in such contracted form, the practice being more specially common among the Franks, from whom I think that most of the names in question have been derived. Thus we have _Cobbold_ for Codbald or Godbold, _Cobbett_ for Godbet or Codbet, _Lucas_ (Lucas, _Lib. Vit._), from a Frankish Liucoz for Liudgoz, _Boggis_ from a Boggis for Bodgis, _Lewis_ for Leodgis, _Rabbit_ for Radbod, _Chabot_ for Chadbod. So also _Ralph_ and _Rolfe_ for Radulf and Hrodulf (though also for Ragulf and Hrogulf), _Roland_ for Rodland, _Roman_ for Rodman, &c.
So _f_ is often dropped when it is followed by _m_ or _n_, as in A.S.
Leomman for Leofmann, whence our _Lemon_. It is probable that our _Limmer_ is a similar contraction of A.S. Leofmer.
As a case of transposition I may note _Falstaff_ from, as supposed, the O.G. name Fastulf. It may be a question whether this is not an Old Frankish name come to us through the Normans, for at Gambetta's funeral the French Bar was represented by M. _Falsteuf_.
I now come to corruptions which arise from the attempt to give to a name something of an apparent meaning in English. Let me observe that, almost as an invariable rule, corruptions are made towards a meaning and not away from it; the ancient name Irminger might be corrupted into Ironmonger, but Ironmonger could not be corrupted into Irminger. It is natural to men to try to get some semblance of meaning out of a name, and all the more that it approaches to something which has a familiar sound to their ears. Thus H.M. ship, the _Bellerophon_, was called by the sailors the "Billy Ruffian," and a vessel owned by a fore-elder of mine, and which he christened the _Agomemnon_, invariably went among the sailors by the name of the "Mahogany Tom." Thus the Anglo-Saxon Trumbald has first become _Trumbull_ and then _Tremble_, and as suggested by Mr.
Charnock, _Turnbull_. So we have the Old Norse name Thorgautr (Turgot, _Domesday_) variously made into _Target_ and into _Thoroughgood_.[46] In some cases a very slight change suffices to give a new complexion to the name, thus the Old Frankish Godenulf, (_ulf_, wolf), through a Norman Godeneuf, is scarcely changed in our _Goodenough_. Similarly we might have had Badenough (O.G. Badanulf), and Richenough (A.S. Ricnulf).
We have _Birchenough_ (reminding us of Dr. Busby) no doubt from a name of similar formation not yet turned up. Then we have several names as _Garment_, _Rayment_, _Argument_, _Element_, _Merriment_, _Monument_, from ancient names ending in _mund_ or _munt_, supposed to mean protection, with only the change of a letter. I have referred in an earlier part of this chapter to the name Pendgast, and to the phonetic corruptions to which it has been subjected. But it seems also to have been subjected to a corruption of the other kind, for I take it that our name _Pentecost_ is properly Pentecast, as another or High German form of Pendegast. Another case of a corruption easily made is that of our name _Whitethread_ which seems obviously the Anglo-Saxon name Wihtraed, of which also we have another obvious corruption in _Whiterod_. So also the Anglo-Saxon name Weogern, p. 111 (more properly Wiggern, _wig_, war, and _gern_, eager), by an easy transition becomes _Waghorn_. And in this way also the paradoxical-looking name _Fairfoul_, by a slight change of spelling, may be explained as Farefowl, "wandering bird," as a name probably given by the Saxon or Danish sea-rovers.
Let us take a name of a different kind, _Starbuck_, no doubt of local origin, from the place called Starbeck in Yorkshire. Now beck is a Northern word signifying brook; it is probably of Danish origin, inasmuch as its use precisely corresponds with the limits of the Danish occupation. So long then as Starbeck lived in the north among his own people, to whom _beck_ is a familiar word, there would be no fear of his name being corrupted. But when he migrated to a part of England where _beck_ has no meaning, then by and by the natural craving for some kind of a meaning would assert itself, and, as the best it could do, change _beck_ into _buck_. But the name of the place itself affords an illustration of the same principle. For _star_ is in all probability the same word as _stour_, so common as a river-name (Arm. ster, water, river), made into _star_ in the craving for some kind of a meaning.
Let us take another name with the same ending, _Clutterbuck_, also, I doubt not, a name of local origin, though I am unable in this case to identify the place. But _clutter_ seems evidently to be from the Anglo-Saxon, _hluttor_, clear, pure, limpid, and the word must have been _hluttorbeck_, "clear brook," so that this is another case of a similar corruption. The Anglo-Saxons, no doubt, strongly aspirated the initial _h_, so that the name has become Clutterbuck.
Another name which may be taken to be of the same kind is _Honeybun_, no doubt a corruption of another name _Honeyburn_, from _burn_, a brook, _honey_ being apparently used by the Anglo-Saxons as an epithet to describe sweet waters. But to the modern ear Honey_bun_ is a much more natural association than Honey_burn_, particularly since the Anglo-Saxon _burn_ for _brook_ has passed out of use in England.
Among the Germans, corruptions towards a meaning are also common, as in such names as _Guttwein_ for Godwine or Gotwine, _Warmbadt_ for Warinbod, _Leutenant_ for Liutnand (_liud_, people, _nant_, daring).
There is a curious-looking and seemingly profane name _Heiliggheist_, as if from the third person of the Trinity, which may, however, be a corruption of an ancient name, perhaps of the name Haldegast.
The odd-looking names _Oyster_ and _Oysterman_ in _Suffolk Surnames_ are probably the German names Oster and Ostermann (_oster_, orientalis) in an anglicised form, the marvellous power of assimilation possessed by the great Republic evincing itself, among other things, in the way in which it anglicises foreign names. Thus the name _Crumpecker_, placed by Bowditch among names from birds, is, we can hardly doubt, a corruption of a German Krumbacher, _i.e._ "a native of Krumbach," of which name there are several places in Germany. So also the ending _thaler_ in German names, from _thal_, valley, is changed into "dollar" as its supposed equivalent. Hence the Americans have _Milldolar, Barndollar_, and _Cashdollar_, corruptions of some such German names as Muhlthaler, Bernthaler, and Kasenthaler, signifying an inhabitant respectively of Muhlthal, of Bernthal, and of Kasenthal. It would seem as if a man coming to this new world, where everything around him is changed--presumably for the better--accepts it as, among other things, a part of the new dispensation, that whereas his name has hitherto been, say Kasenthaler, he shall henceforth answer to the name--perhaps not an inauspicious one--of Cashdollar.
FOOTNOTES:
[43] There is another name _Snodgrass_, which may be a similar corruption of Snodgast, from the stem _snod_, A.S. _snot_, wise.
[44] This however is by no means certain, inasmuch as there is a stem _card_ or _gard_ from which it might be formed, though the corresponding ancient name has not turned up. On the other hand it is to be observed that _wealh_ is not one of the more common endings.
[45] Pagan occurs as an A.S. name, (_Thorpe_, p. 648), and may probably be referred to _bagan_, to contend. _Cf._ also Pagingas among the early settlers.
[46] According, no doubt, as the ancient name appeared as Thorgaut or Thorgaud.
CHAPTER VII.
THE OLD FRANKS AND THE PRESENT FRENCH.
To any one who takes note of the large proportion of French Christian names which are of German origin, the question, one would think, might naturally suggest itself--If such be the case with Christian names, may it not also be the case with regard to surnames? The Christian names _Albert_, _Adolphe_, _Alfonse_, _Charles_, _Claude_, _Edouard_, _Edmonde_, _Ferdinand_, _Gerard_, _Henri_, _Louis_, _Philibert_, _Robert_, _Richarde_, _Rudolfe_, _Guillaume_, and the women's _Adele_, _Clotilde_, _Louise_, _Mathilde_, _Heloise_, and many others, serve to remind us that the French have come of the Franks. That the same holds good also of French surnames I have in a previous work endeavoured to prove in considerable detail, and I will not go over the ground again further than at the end of this chapter to present as an illustration of my views upon the subject one or two stems complete with their branches.
The Franks being a branch of a High German, and the Saxons of a Low German stock, it follows that French names, as compared with English, should, in names of Teutonic origin, exhibit High German forms in comparison with our Low German. One of these differences is, for instance, _au_ for _ea_, as in German auge, Anglo-Saxon, _eage_, English, _eye_. Thus the Anglo-Saxon _ead_, happiness, prosperity, so common in men's names, is in Frankish represented by _aud_, or _od_--hence the name of the Norman bishop Odo is the counterpart of an Anglo-Saxon Eada or Eda, and the name of the Lombard king Audoin (Audwin), is the counterpart of the Anglo-Saxon Eadwin. It will be seen then that the French Christian name _Edouard_ is not a true Frankish form--the proper form is shown in two French surnames, _Audouard_ and _Audevard_. I cannot account for the particular case of this Christian name on any other ground than that simply of euphony. The corresponding Italian Christian name, _Odoardo_, come to them through the Franks or the Lombards, represents, it will be seen, the proper High German form.
The High German forms, then, that appear in English names may be taken to a great extent to represent Old Frankish names that have come to us through the Normans. But the number of such names appears to be greater than could reasonably be thus accounted for, and moreover we seem, as I have noted at p. 75, to have had such forms even in Anglo-Saxon times, _e.g._ both the forms _ead_ or _ed_, and _aud_ or _od_, in the names of our early settlers. And it appears to me therefore that Lappenberg's theory that Franks, Lombards, and Frisians were among the early settlers, is one that deserves most careful consideration. And I propose at present to deal with the subject, so far as the Franks are concerned, and to trace out to the best of my ability, the Frankish forms that seem to present themselves in Anglo-Saxon times, and also in our existing surnames. In so doing, I wish to disclaim any assumption of philological knowledge such as might be implied by dealing with the niceties of ancient dialects. All that I proceed upon is this--I find from German writers that certain forms prevailed in Frankish names, and I compare them with certain forms apparently of the same kind which I find in Anglo-Saxon times.
Now the ancient Frankish speech, along with the ordinary characteristics of a High German dialect, had some special peculiarities of its own, and it is through these that we have the best chance of obtaining satisfactory indications. Of these there are three forms in particular, with each of which I propose to deal in turn, placing at the head the group of surnames which I take to owe their origin to this source. And as assisting to throw light upon the subject I have in some cases introduced the present French names corresponding.
CHAD, CHATTO, CHATTING, CHADDOCK, CHABOT, CHADBORN, CHADMAN, CHADWICK, CHATTOWAY, CHATWIN, CHATWOOD, CHARD, CHART, CHARTER, CHAIN, CHANEY, CHILDAR, CHILDREN, CHILL, CHILLMAN, CHILLMAID, CHUBB, CHUBBACK, CHOPPIN.
One of the peculiarities of the Frankish dialect especially during the Merovingian period, was the prefix of _c_ before names beginning with _h_, as in Childebert and Childeric for Hildebert and Hilderic. Of this there seem to be considerable traces in Anglo-Saxon times, as will be seen from the following:--
_Chad_ for _had_, war.
A.S. Chad, bishop of Lichfield--Ceada, found in Ceadanford--Cedda, found in Ceddanleah--Frankish, Chaddo. Eng. Chad, Chatto.
_Diminutive._
Frnk. Chadichus. Eng. Chaddock.
_Patronymic._
Eng. Chatting.
_Compounds._
(_Bad_, war), Frnk. Chadbedo, Chabedo--Eng. Chabot.[47] (_Wine_, friend), Frnk. Chaduin--Eng. Chadwin, Chatwin. (_Wig_, war), A.S.
Chatewe (_wi_ for wig) found in Ceatewesleah--Eng. Chadwick, Chattoway.
(We have also the other form Hathaway, O.G. Hathuwi, to compare with Chattaway.)
Then we have a stem _chard, chart_, which it seems to me may be a similar Frankish form of _hard_ or _hart_, durus, fortis, a very common stem for men's names.
_Chard_ for _hard_.
A.S. Cerda (Cherda) found in Cerdanhlaew. Ceorta, found in Ceortan stapol. Ceort, found in Ceortesege, now Chertsey. Eng. Chard, Chart.