Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?
LESSON CXV
FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES
LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the required consistency of flour mixtures, _i.e._ the approximate proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.
In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk
BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses
FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.
When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.
FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.
Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.
In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
FLOUR AND SALT
1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour
FLOUR AND FAT
1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour
While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.
WAFFLES
2 cupfuls flour 3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 to 2 eggs 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may be used for this purpose.
Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.
Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.
How many waffles does the given recipe make?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXVI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS
HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that these foodstuffs either (_a_) "burned" (_i.e._ united with oxygen) and produced energy, (_b_) built the body, or (_c_) aided in regulating body processes.
All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see _Solution and Digestion_); they are then further altered, _i.e._ split to their end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue.
The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other materials needed for building muscle.
Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the body.
HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body could be compared to an automobile, _i.e._ the "burning" of the fuel foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the _fuel value_ of that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence, the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. _If the quantity of heat that is produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body._
Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a _Calorie_, or a definite quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote 86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, _i.e._ the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through about 4 degrees F.
The Calorie, [Footnote 87: _I.e._ greater Calorie, distinguished from the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, _is approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (pint) of water through_ 4 degrees F. If one pint of water were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have been applied to the water (see Figure 82).
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143, "Physiological Fuel Values."]
1 gram protein yields 4 Calories 1 gram fat yields 9 Calories 1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become: 1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories 1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories 1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories
[Illustration: FIGURE 82.--ILLUSTRATING THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REPRESENTED BY ONE CALORIE.]