Wheler visited the ruins of Paloeopoli, the ancient metropolis of the island. "It stood," says he, "on a promontory to the south of the present city, separated from it by a little bay, of about a mile or two over. The abundance of ruins and fortifications, which are to be seen there, do sufficiently prove it to have been so." Abundance of foundations, he goes on to observe, have been dug up there; and of arches and pillars, many of which have been employed to build the foundations of the present city.
There are also the remains of an old place of worship; the architecture of which is sustained by Corinthian columns of white marble, with an inscription, showing that it was built by the Emperor Jovian, after he was converted to the Christian faith and had destroyed the heathen temples.
"_I Jovian, having received the faith, established the kingdom of my power; and having destroyed the heathen temples and altars, have built to thee, O thou blessed and most high King, a holy temple, the gift of an unworthy hand._"
Mr. Dodwell visited this place some years ago, and he says that nothing is now seen above ground of the remains of the ancient city, except some frusta of large columns, which from having flutings without intervals, were evidently of the Doric order. They have a large square, which forms but one mass with a column, which is a singularity, it is said, of which there is no other example.
Corcyra was celebrated, as we have before stated, for having been the island on which Ulysses is represented in the Odyssey as having been entertained by Alcinous, king of Phaeacia. It is also the place where Cicero and Cato met after the battle of Pharsalia; and where Cato, after having intrusted Cicero to take the command of the last legions which remained faithful to the republic, separated from him to lose his life at Utica, while Cicero went to lose his head to the triumvirate. To this place Aristotle was once exiled; and it is well known as having been visited by the youthful Alexander; as the place where the tragical nuptials of Antony and Cleopatra were celebrated; and as that where Agrippina touched, bringing from Egypt the body of the murdered Germanicus in the midst of winter[197].
NO. XXIX.--CORINTH.
Corinth!-- Whose gorgeous fabrics seem'd to strike the skies, Whom, though by tyrant victors oft subdued, Greece, Egypt, Rome, with awful wonder view'd.
Her name, for Pallas' heavenly art renown'd, Spread like the foliage which her pillars crown'd; But now in fatal desolation laid, Oblivion o'er it draws a dismal shade.
This city was situated at the foot of a hill, on which stood the citadel. To the south it was defended by the hill itself, which is there extremely steep. Strong and lofty ramparts protected it on three sides.
Corinth was at first subject to the kings of Argos and Mycenae; at last Sisyphus made himself master of it. But his descendants were dispossessed of the throne by the Heraclidae, about ten years after the siege of Troy. The regal power, after this, came to the descendants of Bacchis, under whom the monarchy was changed into an aristocracy; that is, the reins of government were in the hands of the elders, who annually chose from amongst themselves a chief magistrate, whom they called Prytanis. At length Cypselus, having gained the people, usurped the supreme authority, which he transmitted to his son Periander.
The most celebrated of the Corinthians was a person, who though a tyrant, was reckoned one of the seven wise men (Periander). When he had first made himself master of the city, he wrote to Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus, to know what measures he should take with his newly-acquired subjects. The latter, without any answer, led the messenger into a field of wheat; where, in walking along, he beat down with his cane all the ears of corn that were higher than the rest. Periander perfectly well understood the meaning of this enigmatical answer, which was a tacit intimation to him, that, in order to secure his own life, he should cut off the most eminent of the Corinthian citizens. Periander, however, did not relish so cruel an advice.
He wrote circular letters to all the wise men, inviting them to pass some time with him at Corinth, as they had done the year before at Sardis with Croesus. Princes in those days thought themselves much honoured when they could have such guests in their houses. Plutarch describes an entertainment which Periander gave these illustrious guests, and observes, at the same time, that the decent simplicity of it, adapted to the taste and humour of the persons entertained, did him much more honour than the greatest magnificence could have done. The subject of their discourse at table was sometimes grave and serious, at other times pleasant and gay. One of the company proposed this question;--Which is the most perfect popular government? That, answered Solon, where an injury, done to any private citizen, is such to the whole body: That, said Bias, where the law has no superior: That, said Thales, where the inhabitants are neither too rich nor too poor: That, said Anacharsis, where virtue is honoured, and vice detested: Says Pittacus, where dignities are always conferred upon the virtuous, and never upon the wicked: Says Cleobulus, where the citizens fear blame, more than punishment: Says Chilo, where the laws are more regarded, and have more authority, than the orators. From all these opinions Periander concluded, that the most perfect popular government would be that which came nearest to aristocracy, where the sovereign authority is lodged in the hands of a few men of honour and virtue.
This city standing between two seas, an attempt was made by Periander, and afterwards by Alexander, Demetrius, Julius Caesar, Caligula, Nero, and Herodes Atticus, to unite them; but they all failed in the attempt.
Strabo was in Corinth after its restoration by the Romans. He describes the site, and says, that its circuit occupied five miles. From the summit of the Sisypheum, he continues, is beheld to the north Parnassus and Helicon, lofty mountains covered with snow; and below both, to the west, the Crissaean gulf, bounded by Phocis, by Boeotia and the Megaris, and by Corinthia and Sicyonia. Beyond all these are the Oneian mountains, stretching as far as Cithaeron.
Corinth had temples dedicated to the Egyptian Isis, to Serapis, and Serapis of Canopus. Fortune, also, had a temple, and her statue was made of Persian work; and near this temple was another, dedicated to the mother of all the gods.
Besides the citadel, built upon the mountain, the works of art, which chiefly displayed the opulence and taste of the people, were the grottoes, raised over the fountain of Pyrene, sacred to the Muses, and constructed of white marble. There were, also, a theatre and stadium, built of the same materials, and decorated in the most magnificent manner; also a temple of Neptune, containing the chariots of the god, and of Amphitrite, drawn by horses covered over with gold, and adorned with ivory hoofs.
There were a multitude of statues, also; amongst which were those of Bacchus, and Diana of Ephesus. These were of wood; others were of bronze; amongst which were those of Apollo Clarius; a Venus by Hermogenes of Cythera; two Mercuries; three statues of Jupiter; and a Minerva. This last was mounted on a pedestal, the basso-relievos of which represented the Nine Muses.
Such, indeed, were its wealth, magnificence, and excellent situation, that it was thought by the Romans equally worthy of empire with Carthage and Capua; and this induces me to say a few words in regard to its war with the Romans.
Metellus[198] having received advice in Macedonia of the troubles in Peloponnesus, departed thither with Romans of distinction, who arrived in Corinth at the time the council was assembled there. They spoke in it with abundance of moderation, exhorting the Achaians not to draw upon themselves, by imprudent levity and weakness, the resentment of the Romans. They were treated with contempt, and ignominiously turned out of the assembly. An innumerable crowd of workmen and artificers rose about them, and insulted them. All the cities of Achaia were at the time in a kind of delirium; but Corinth was far more frantic than the rest, and abandoned themselves to a kind of madness. They had been persuaded that Rome intended to enslave them all, and absolutely to destroy the Achaian league.
The Romans, having chosen Mummius for one of the consuls, charged him with the management of the Achaian war. When Mummius had assembled all his troops, he advanced to the city, and encamped before it. A body of his advanced guard being negligent of duty upon their post, the besieged made a sally, attacked them vigorously, killed many, and pursued the rest almost to the entrance of their camp. This small advantage very much encouraged the Achaians, and thereby proved fatal to them. Diaeus offered the consul battle. The latter, to augment his rashness, kept his troops within the camp, as if fear prevented him from accepting it. The joy and presumption of the Achaians rose in consequence to an inexpressible height. They advanced furiously with all their troops, having placed their wives and children upon the neighbouring eminence, to be spectators of the battle, and caused a great number of carriages to follow them, to be laden with the booty they should take from the enemy; so fully did they assure themselves of the victory.
Never was there a more rash or ill-founded confidence. The faction had removed from the service and councils all such as were capable of commanding the troops, or conducting affairs; and had substituted others in their room, without either talents or ability, in order to their being more absolutely masters of the government, and ruling without opposition. The chiefs, without military knowledge, valour, or experience, had no other merit than a blind and frantic rage. They had already committed an excess of folly in hazarding a battle, which was to decide their fate, without necessity, instead of thinking of a long and brave defence in so strong a place as Corinth, and of obtaining good conditions by a vigorous resistance. The battle was fought near Leucopetra, and the defile of the isthmus. The consul had posted part of his horse in ambuscade, which they quitted at a proper time for charging the Achaian cavalry in flank; who, surprised by an unforeseen attack, gave way immediately. The infantry made a little more resistance; but, as it was neither covered, nor sustained by the horse, it was soon broken and put to flight. Diaeus, upon this, abandoned himself to despair. He rode full speed to Megalopolis, and having entered his house, set fire to it; killed his wife, to prevent her falling into the hands of the enemy; drank poison; and in that manner put an end to his life, worthy of the many crimes he had committed.
After this defeat, the inhabitants lost all hope of defending themselves; so that all the Achaians who had retired into Corinth, and most of the citizens, quitted it the following night, to save themselves how they could. The consul having entered the city, abandoned it to be plundered by the soldiers. All the men who were left in it were put to the sword, and the women and children sold; and after the statues, paintings, and richest moveables were removed, in order to their being carried to Rome, the houses were set on fire, and the whole city continued in flames for several days. From that time the Corinthian brass became more valuable than ever, though it had been in reputation long before. It is pretended that the gold, silver, and brass, which were melted, and ran together in this conflagration, formed a new and precious metal. The walls were afterwards desolated, and razed to their very foundations. All this was executed by order of the Senate, to punish the insolence of the Corinthians, who had violated the law of nations, in their treatment of the ambassadors sent to them by Rome.
The booty taken at Corinth was sold, and considerable sums raised from it. Amongst the paintings there was a piece drawn by the most celebrated hand in Greece, representing Bacchus, the beauty of which was not known to the Romans, who were at that time entirely ignorant of the polite arts. Polybius, who was then in the country, had the mortification to see the painting serve the soldiers for a table to play at dice upon. It was afterwards sold to Attalus for 3625 sterling. Pliny mentions another picture by the same painter, which the same Attalus purchased for 110 talents. The consul, surprised that the price of the painting in question should rise so high, interposed his authority, and retained it contrary to public faith, and notwithstanding the complaints of Attalus, because he imagined there was some hidden virtue in the prize, unknown to him. He did not act in that manner for his private interest, nor with the view of appropriating it to himself, as he sent it to Rome, to be applied in adorning the city. When it arrived at Rome, it was set up in the temple of Ceres, whither the judges went to see it out of curiosity, as a masterpiece of art; and it remained there till it was burned with that temple.
Mummius was a great warrior, and an excellent man; but he had neither learning, knowledge of arts, nor taste for painting or sculpture. He ordered particular persons to take care of transporting many of the paintings and statues of the most excellent masters to Rome. Never had loss been so irreparable, as that of such a deposite, consisting of the masterpieces of those rare artists, who contributed almost as much as the great captains, to the rendering of their age glorious to posterity.
Mummius, however, in recommending the care of that precious collection to those to whom he confided them, threatened them very seriously, that if the statues, paintings, and other things with which he charged them, should be either lost or destroyed by the way, he would oblige them to find others at their own cost[199];--a saying deservedly ridiculed by all persons of sense, as a most egregious solecism in taste and delicacy[200].
It is amusing to observe the difference between Mummius and Scipio;--the one the conqueror of Corinth, the other of Carthage; both in the same year[201]. Scipio, to the courage and virtue of ancient heroes, joined a profound knowledge of the sciences, with all the genius and ornaments of wit. His patronage was courted by every one who made any figure in learning. Panaetius, whom Tully calls the prince of the Stoics, and Polybius the historian, were his bosom friends, the assisters of his studies at home, and the constant companions of his expeditions abroad.
To which may be added, that he passed the more agreeable hours of his life in the conversation of Terence, and is even thought to have taken part in the composition of his comedies.
The period in which the Isthmian games were to be celebrated being at hand, the expectation of what was to be transacted drew thither an incredible multitude of people, and persons of the highest rank. The conditions of peace, which were not yet entirely made public, were the topic of all conversations, and various constructions were put upon them; but very few could be persuaded that the Romans would evacuate all the cities they had taken. All Greece was in this uncertainty, when the multitude being assembled in the stadium to see the games, a herald comes forward, and publishes with a loud voice:--"The senate and people of Rome, and Titus Quintius the general, having overcome Philip and the Macedonians, ease and deliver from all garrisons and taxes and imposts, the Corinthians, the Locrians, the Phocians, the Euboeans, the Phthiot Achaians, the Magnesians, the Thessalians, and the Perrhoebians; declare them free, and ordain that they shall be governed by their respective laws and usages."
At these words all the spectators were filled with excessive joy. They gazed upon and questioned one another with astonishment, and could not believe either eyes or ears; so like a dream was what they saw and heard. But being at last assured of their happiness, they abandoned themselves again to the highest transports of joy, and broke out into such loud acclamations, that the sea resounded them to a distance; and some ravens, which happened to fly that instant over the assembly, fell down into the stadium; so true it is, that of all the blessings of this life, none are so dear as that of liberty!
Corinth, nevertheless, remained after this in a ruined and desolate state many years. At length, Caesar, after he had subdued Africa, and while his fleet lay at anchor at Utica, gave order for rebuilding Carthage; and soon after his return to Italy, he likewise caused Corinth to be rebuilt. Strabo and Plutarch agree in ascribing the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth to Julius Caesar; and Plutarch remarks this singular circumstance with regard to these cities, viz.--that as they were taken and destroyed in the same year, they were rebuilt and repeopled at the same time.
Under the eastern emperors, Corinth was the see of an archbishop, subject to the patriarch of Constantinople. Roger, king of Naples, obtained possession of it under the empire of Emanuel. It had, afterwards, its own sovereign, who ceded it to the Venetians; from whom it was taken by Mahomet II., A.D. 1458. The Venetians retook it in 1687, and held it till the year 1715, when they lost it to the Turks, in whose possession it remained till, a few years since, Greece was erected into an independent state. The grand army of the Turks[202] (in 1715) under the prime vizier, to open themselves a way into the heart of the Morea, attacked Corinth, upon which they made several attacks. The garrison being weakened, and the governor, seeing it was impossible to hold out against a force so superior to their own, beat a parley; but while they were treating about the articles, one of the magazines in the Turkish camp, wherein they had 600 barrels of powder, blew up by accident, whereby between 600 and 700 men were killed; which so enraged the infidels, that they would not grant any capitulation, but stormed the place with so much fury that they took it, and put most of the garrison, with the governor, Signior Minotti, to the sword. The rest they made prisoners of war. This subject formed the foundation of Lord Byron's poem of the Siege of Corinth.
The natural consequences of an extensive commerce were wealth and luxury. Fostered in this manner, the city rose in magnificence and grandeur; and the elegant and magnificent temples, palaces, theatres, and other buildings, adorned with statues, columns, capitals, and bases, not only rendered it the pride of its inhabitants and the admiration of strangers, but gave rise to that order of architecture which still bears its name.
Corinth has preserved but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens.
The chief remains are at the southern corner of the town, and above the bazaar; eleven columns, supporting their architraves, of the Doric order, fluted, and wanting in height near half the common proportion to the diameter. Within them, to the western end, is one taller, though entire, which, it is likely, contributed to sustain the roof. They are of stone. This ruin is probably of great antiquity, and a portion of a fabric, erected mostly before the Greek city was destroyed, but before the Doric order had attained to maturity.
Mr. Dodwell, nevertheless, observed no remains of the order of architecture which is said to have been invented at Corinth, nor did he perceive in any part of the isthmus the acanthus plant, which forms the principal distinctive character of the Corinthian capital.
Corinth*, says Mr. Turner, contains, within its walls, remains of antiquity, but some small masses of ruined walls and seven columns, with part of the frieze of a temple, of which some columns were pulled down to make room for a Turkish house to which it joins.
As there is nothing approaching to an intelligible building of antiquity, we may exclaim with the poet--
Where is thy grandeur, Corinth! shrunk from sight, Thy ancient treasures, and thy ramparts' height, Thy god-like fanes and palaces! Oh where, Thy mighty myriads and majestic fair!
Relentless war has poured around thy wall, And hardly spared the traces of thy fall.
There are several shapeless and uninteresting masses of Roman remains composed of bricks, one of which seems to have been a bath, resembling, in some respects, that of Dioclesian at Rome, but little more than the lower walls and foundations are remaining. The only Grecian ruin which, at present, remains at Corinth, is that of a Doric temple. When Du Loir travelled there (1654), there were twelve columns of this temple standing. In the time of Chandler there were also eleven; but now there are only seven. To what god this temple was dedicated is unknown. The columns are each composed of one black calcareous stone, which being of a porous quality, were anciently covered with stucco of great hardness and durability. From its massive and inelegant proportions, Mr. Dodwell is disposed to believe, that this ruin is the most ancient remaining in Greece.
In the narrowest part of the isthmus, about three miles from Corinth, and therefore probably in the place where the games were celebrated, are seen the spacious remains of a theatre and stadium; and less than a mile from Corinth, in the same direction, the circuit and arena are still visible.
The Acropolis, however, is one of the finest objects in Greece, and before the introduction of artillery, it was deemed almost impregnable, and had never been taken except by treachery or surprise. In the time of Aratus it was defended only by four hundred soldiers, fifty dogs, and fifty keepers. It shoots up majestically from the plain to a considerable height, and forms a conspicuous object at a great distance; as it is clearly seen from Athens, from which it is not less than forty-four miles in a direct line. From its summit is a glorious prospect. Strabo thus describes it:--"From the summit of the Acropolis, Parnassus and Helicon are seen covered with snow. Towards the west is the gulf of Krissa, bordered by Phocis, Boeotia, Megaris, Corinthia, and Sicyonia. Beyond are the Oneian mountains, extending to Boeotia and Mount Cithaeron." The entire view forms, on the whole, a panorama of the most captivating features, and of the greatest dimensions, comprehending six of the most celebrated states of Greece;--Achaia, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and Argolis[203].
The Corinthian order having been invented at Corinth, we cannot refuse ourselves the satisfaction of quoting a passage from Dr. Brewster's treatise on Civil Architecture:--"The artists of Graecia Proper, perceiving that in the Ionic order the severity of the Doric had been departed from, by one happy effort invented a third, which much surpassed the Ionic in delicacy of proportion and richness of decorations. This was named the Corinthian order. The merit of this invention is ascribed to Callimachus of Athens, who is said to have had the idea suggested to him by observing acanthus leaves growing round a basket, which had been placed with some favourite trinkets upon the grave of a young lady; the stalks which rose among the leaves having been formed into slender volutes by a square tile which covered the basket. It is possible that a circumstance of this nature may have caught the fancy of a sculptor who was contemporary with Phidias; and who was, doubtless, in that age of competition, alive to every thing which promised distinction in his profession. But in the warmth of our devotion for the inspiration of Greek genius, we must not overlook the facts, that, in the pillars of several temples in Upper Egypt, whose shafts represent bundles of reeds or lotus, bound together in several places by fillets, the capitals are formed by several rows of delicate leaves. In the splendid ruins of Vellore in Hindostan, the capitals are, also, composed of similar ornaments; and it is well known, that the Persians, at their great festivals, were in the habit of decorating with flowers the tops of their pillars which formed the public apartments. It is, therefore, not improbable, that these circumstances, after so much intercourse with other countries, might have suggested ideas to Callimachus, which enabled him to surpass the capital of Ionia[204]."
At Corinth, too, the art of portrait painting is said to have been first practised.
"Blest be the pencil! whose consoling power, Soothing soft Friendship in her pensive hour, Dispels the cloud, with melancholy fraught, That absence throws upon her tender thought.
Blest be the pencil! whose enchantment gives To wounded Love the food on which he lives.
Rich in this gift, though cruel ocean bear The youth to exile from his faithful fair, He in fond dreams hangs o'er her glowing cheek, Still owns her present, and still hears her speak.
Oh! LOVE, it was thy glory to impart Its infant being to this sweetest art!
Inspired by thee, the soft Corinthian maid, Her graceful lover's sleeping form portray'd; Her boding heart his near departure knew, Yet long'd to keep his image in her view.
Pleased she beheld the steady shadow fall, By the clear lamp upon the even wall.
The line she traced, with fond precision true, And, drawing, doted on the form she drew: Nor, as she glow'd with no forbidden fire, Conceal'd the simple picture from her sire.
His kindred fancy, still to nature just, Copied her line, and form'd the mimic bust.
Thus from thy inspiration, LOVE, we trace The modell'd image, and the pencill'd face!"[205]