To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] "An irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners, within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._"
Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern products with pile of wool or goat's hair often dyed in garish colours.
There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported from there they were often classed as products of that city.
Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel's hair than any other class of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of the field and border. This lavish use of camel's hair, the broad encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other rugs.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel's hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton, frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel's hair and some wool; in recent rugs, mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel's hair. _Sides_, overcast, generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
IRANS.-Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
SAROUKS.-Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls, sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most beautiful rugs made in all the East.
Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities, though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields; but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one another.
Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern, which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field, or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called "Ispahans;" while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and foliage motives.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_, cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
KASHANS.-Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces, though the demand for them is small.
On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market, though it is only within recent years that they have been generally known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs; yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks, so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite colour make them exceedingly handsome.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_, generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
SABABENDS.-Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan, Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less important centres of weaving.
Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or the date when the piece was woven.
The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue; and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to the other colours of the pears.
With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes, of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen with three.
The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which signifies the "city of Mir," and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes, and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V-GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border, and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as products of the XVI Century._
_Property of the Author_]
BURUJIRDS.-About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich, well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be mistaken for Iran rugs.
SULTANABADS.-Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that lie within a day's journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely woven.
MUSKABADS.-In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red, yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft, the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave they are very serviceable.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to seven eighths length.
JOSHAGHANS.-Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse, and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven; and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.