On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs, like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular; while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually connected (Plate O, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered, the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design.
Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin represented in Plate J, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, also some red, ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a double overcasting or selvage. _Lower end_, a narrow web, not infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops. _Upper end_, a narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.
_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one half to three quarters length.
[Illustration: PLATE 45. SHIRVAN RUG]
KUBAS.-Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan, in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to be the residence of a Khan. For a long period previous to the treaty of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown, streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish display of large flowers _en masse_, and not detached from one another or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any other Caucasian rug.
Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft, velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that they are frequently mistaken for one another, and can only be distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of weave.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown, occasionally some green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, fine wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.
_Weft_, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
_Border_, one to three stripes. _Sides_, a blue double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow blue web of "herring-bone" weave, a knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.
_Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
DERBENDS.-Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea, where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana, and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century "Derbend," which in their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century; Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that find a market in the city.
Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of moderate length. At the back of these older rugs is sometimes displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much farther to the south.
[Illustration: PLATE 46. SOUMAK RUG]
In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap, looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat's hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian.
Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which, fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans.
Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking in artistic qualities.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve.
Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, generally wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread of coarse diameter crosses only once. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
_Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_ have a web, frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
LESGHIANS.-On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents, where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire, and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc, eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.
_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, brown wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, an added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two, three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to eight feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
CHICHIS.-On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain; but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring note is eliminated.
Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds, eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very few other classes.
Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type generally seen (Plate I, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of Daghestans.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, blue, and red, with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
_Usual length_, four and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual width_, five eighths to three quarters length.
[Illustration: PLATE 47. KAZAK PRAYER RUG]
TCHERKESS.-The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called "Tcherkesses," a Tartar term for "cutter of roads" or highwaymen; and they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as "Adighies" or Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar, migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a better understanding of this class.
Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture, boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped figures sometimes called "sun-bursts," that are often regarded as crude copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and tawny yellow, with minor quantities of blue and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.
_Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as four or six times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both ends_, as a rule have a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally either web or selvage may be omitted. _Texture_, very firm. Weave at back of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
BAKUS.-No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians, Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of different religions and different races have been felt here.
The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours, that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black, as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VIII-SOUMAK RUG_
_The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen.
Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow, and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent quality of this rare piece._
_Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley_]
An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs, which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (Plate O, Fig.
6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also, they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the rug as they do in Sarabends.
At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs, crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs woven within the last century.
The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow, and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other. _Weft_, usually cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short.
_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a weft overcasting or a narrow weft selvage. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.