There is a biography by her nephew, Theodore Bacon, _Delia Bacon: A Sketch_ (Boston, 1888), and an appreciative chapter, "Recollections of a Gifted Woman," in Nathaniel Hawthorne's _Our Old Home_ (Boston, 1863).
Leonard Bacon's son LEONARD WOOLSEY BACON (1830-1907), graduated at Yale in 1850, was pastor of various Congregational and Presbyterian churches, and published _Church Papers_ (1876); _A Life Worth Living: Life of Emily Bliss Gould_ (1878); _Irenics and Polemics and Sundry Essays in Church History_ (1895); _History of American Christianity_ (1898); and _The Congregationalists_ (1904).
(W. WR.)
BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579), lord keeper of the great seal of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the second son of Robert Bacon of Drinkstone, Suffolk, and was born at Chislehurst. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1527, and afterwards spent some time in Paris. Having returned to England and entered Gray's Inn, he was called to the bar in 1533, and four years later began his public life as solicitor of the court of augmentations. Quickly becoming a person of importance he obtained a number of estates, principally in the eastern counties, after the dissolution of the monasteries, and in 1545 became member of parliament for Dartmouth. In 1546 he was made attorney of the court of wards and liveries, an office of both honour and profit; in 1550 became a bencher and in 1552 treasurer of Gray's Inn. Although his sympathies were with the Protestants, he retained his office in the court of wards during Mary's reign, but an order was issued to prevent him from leaving England. The important period in Bacon's life began with the accession of Elizabeth in 1558. Owing largely to his long and close friendship with Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, his brother-in-law, he was appointed lord keeper of the great seal in December of this year, and was soon afterwards made a privy councillor and a knight.
He was instrumental in securing the archbishopric of Canterbury for his friend Matthew Parker, and in his official capacity presided over the House of Lords when Elizabeth opened her first parliament. In opposition to Cecil, he objected to the policy of making war on France in the interests of the enemies of Mary queen of Scots, on the ground of the poverty of England; but afterwards favoured a closer union with foreign Protestants, and seemed quite alive to the danger to his country from the allied and aggressive religious policy of France and Scotland. In 1559 he was authorized to exercise the full jurisdiction of lord chancellor. In 1564 he fell temporarily into the royal disfavour and was dismissed from court, because Elizabeth suspected he was concerned in the publication of a pamphlet, "A Declaration of the Succession of the Crowne Imperiall of Ingland," written by John Hales (_q.v._), and favouring the claim of Lady Catherine Grey to the English throne. Bacon's innocence having been admitted he was restored to favour, and replied to a writing by Sir Anthony Browne, who had again asserted the rights of the house of Suffolk to which Lady Catherine belonged. He thoroughly distrusted Mary queen of Scots; objected to the proposal to marry her to the duke of Norfolk; and warned Elizabeth that serious consequences for England would follow her restoration. He seems to have disliked the proposed marriage between the English queen and Francis, duke of Anjou, and his distrust of the Roman Catholics and the French was increased by the massacre of St Bartholomew.
As a loyal English churchman he was ceaselessly interested in ecclesiastical matters, and made suggestions for the better observation of doctrine and discipline in the church. He died in London on the 20th of February 1579 and was buried in St Paul's cathedral, his death calling forth many tributes to his memory. He was an eloquent speaker, a learned lawyer, a generous friend; and his interest in education led him to make several gifts and bequests for educational purposes, including the foundation of a free grammar school at Redgrave. His figure was very corpulent and ungainly. Elizabeth visited him several times at Gorhambury, and had previously visited him at Redgrave. He was twice married and by his first wife, Jane, had three sons and three daughters. His second wife was Anne (d. 1610), daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, by whom he had two sons.
Bacon's eldest son, Nicholas (_c._ 1540-1624), was member of parliament for the county of Suffolk and in 1611 was created premier baronet of England.
This baronetcy is still held by his descendants. His second and third sons, Nathaniel (_c._ 1550-1622) and Edward (_c._ 1550-1618), also took some part in public life, and through his daughter, Anne, Nathaniel was an ancestor of the marquesses Townshend. His sons by his second wife were Anthony (1558-1601), a diplomatist of some repute, and the illustrious Francis Bacon (_q.v._).
See G. Whetstone, "Remembraunce of the life of Sir N. Bacon," in the _Frondes Caducae_ (London, 1816); J. A. Froude, _History of England_, passim (London, 1881 f.).
BACON, ROGER (_c._ 1214-_c._ 1294), English philosopher and man of science, was born near Ilchester in Somerset. His family appears to have been in good circumstances, but in the stormy reign of Henry III. their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
Roger completed his studies at Oxford, though not, as current traditions assert, at Merton or at Brasenose, neither of which had then been founded.
His abilities were speedily recognized by his contemporaries, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as Adam de Marisco and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln.
Very little is known of Bacon's life at Oxford; it is said he took orders in 1233, and this is not improbable. In the following year, or perhaps later, he crossed over to France and studied at the university of Paris, then the centre of intellectual life in Europe. The two great orders, Franciscans and Dominicans, were in the vigour of youth, and had already begun to take the lead in theological discussion. Alexander of Hales was the oracle of the Franciscans, while the rival order rejoiced in Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.
The scientific training which Bacon had received, mainly from the study of the Arab writers, showed him the manifold defects in the systems reared by these doctors. Aristotle was known but in part, and that part was rendered well-nigh unintelligible through the vileness of the translations; yet not one of those professors would learn Greek. The Scriptures read, if at all, in the erroneous versions were being deserted for the _Sentences_ of Peter Lombard. Physical science, if there was anything deserving that name, was cultivated, not by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments deduced from premises resting on authority or custom. Everywhere there was a show of knowledge concealing fundamental ignorance. Bacon, accordingly, withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom he respected was a certain Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or of Picardy, probably identical with a certain mathematician, Petrus Peregrinus of Picardy, who is perhaps the author of a MS. treatise, _De Magnete_, contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. The contrast between the obscurity of such a man and [v.03 p.0154] the fame enjoyed by the fluent young doctors roused Bacon's indignation. In the _Opus Minus_ and _Opus Tertium_ he pours forth a violent tirade against Alexander of Hales, and another professor, not mentioned by name, but spoken of as alive, and blamed even more severely than Alexander. This anonymous writer,[1] he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic tone, which has caused him to be received at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, Avicenna, or Averroes.
Bacon, during his stay in Paris, acquired considerable renown. He took the degree of doctor of theology, and seems to have received the complimentary title of _doctor mirabilis_. In 1250 he was again at Oxford, and probably about this time entered the Franciscan order. His fame spread at Oxford, though it was mingled with suspicions of his dealings in the black arts and with some doubts of his orthodoxy. About 1257, Bonaventura, general of the order, interdicted his lectures at Oxford, and commanded him to place himself under the superintendence of the body at Paris. Here for ten years he remained under supervision, suffering great privations and strictly prohibited from writing anything for publication. But his fame had reached the ears of the papal legate in England, Guy de Foulques, who in 1265 became pope as Clement IV. In the following year he wrote to Bacon, ordering him notwithstanding any injunctions from his superiors, to write out and send to him a treatise on the sciences which he had already asked of him when papal legate. Bacon, whose previous writings had been mostly scattered tracts, _capitula quaedam_, took fresh courage from this command of the pope. He set at naught the jealousy of his superiors and brother friars, and despite the want of funds, instruments, materials for copying and skilled copyists, completed in about eighteen months three large treatises, the _Opus Majus_, _Opus Minus_ and _Opus Tertium_, which, with some other tracts, were despatched to the pope. We do not know what opinion Clement formed of them, but before his death he seems to have bestirred himself on Bacon's behalf, for in 1268 the latter was permitted to return to Oxford. Here he continued his labours in experimental science and also in the composition of complete treatises. The works sent to Clement he regarded as preliminaries, laying down principles which were afterwards to be applied to the sciences. The first part of an encyclopaedic work probably remains to us in the _Compendium Studii Philosophiae_ (1271). In this work Bacon makes a vehement attack upon the ignorance and vices of the clergy and monks, and generally upon the insufficiency of the existing studies. In 1278 his books were condemned by Jerome de Ascoli, general of the Franciscans, afterwards Pope Nicholas IV., and he himself was thrown into prison for fourteen years. During this time, it is said, he wrote the small tract _De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus_, but this is merely a tradition. In 1292, as appears from what is probably his latest composition, the _Compendium Studii Theologiae_, he was again at liberty.
The exact time of his death cannot be determined; 1294 is probably as accurate a date as can be fixed upon.
_Works and Editions_.--Leland said that it is easier to collect the leaves of the Sibyl than the titles of the works written by Roger Bacon; and though the labour has been somewhat lightened by the publications of Brewer and Charles, referred to below, it is no easy matter even now to form an accurate idea of his actual productions. An enormous number of MSS. are known to exist in British and French libraries, and probably not all have yet been discovered. Many are transcripts of works or portions of works already published and, therefore, require no notice.[2]
The works hitherto printed (neglecting reprints) are the following:--(1) _Speculum Alchimiae_ (1541)--translated into English (1597); French, A Poisson (1890); (2) _De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae_ (1542)--English translation (1659); (3) _Libellus de Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus_ (1590)--translated as the "Cure of Old Age," by Richard Brown (London, 1683); (4) _Sanioris Medicinae Magistri D. Rogeri Baconis Anglici de Arte Chymiae Scripta_ (Frankfort, 1603)--a collection of small tracts containing _Excerpta de Libra Avicennae de Anima_, _Breve Breviarium_, _Verbum Abbreviatum,_[3] _Secretum Secretorum_, _Tractatus Trium Verborum_, and _Speculum Secretorum_; (5) _Perspectiva_ (1614), which is the fifth part of the _Opus Majus_; (6) _Specula Mathematica_, which is the fourth part of the same; (7) _Opus Majus ad Clementem IV._, edited by S. Jebb (1733) and J. H. Bridges (London, 1897); (8) _Opera hactenus Inedita_, by J. S. Brewer (1859), containing the _Opus Tertium_, _Opus Minus_, _Compendium Studii Philosophiae_ and the _De Secretis Operibus Naturae_; (9) _De Morali Philosophia_ (Dublin, 1860, see below); (10) _The Greek Grammar of R. Bacon and a Fragment of his Hebrew Grammar_, edited with introduction and notes by E. S. Nolan and S. A. Hirsch (1902); (11) _Metaphysica Fratris Rogeri_, edited by R. Steele, with a preface (1905); (12) _Opera hactenus inedita_, by Robert Steele (1905).
How these works stand related to one another can only be determined by internal evidence. The smaller works, chiefly on alchemy, are unimportant, and the dates of their composition cannot be ascertained. It is known that before the _Opus Majus_ Bacon had already written some tracts, among which an unpublished work, _Computus Naturalium_, on chronology, belongs probably to the year 1263; while, if the dedication of the _De Secretis Operibus_ be authentic, that short treatise must have been composed before 1249.
It is, however, with the _Opus Majus_ that Bacon's real activity begins. It has been called by Whewell at once the Encyclopaedia and the Organum of the 13th century.
Part I. (pp. 1-22), which is sometimes designated _De Utililate Scientiarum_, treats of the four _offendicula_, or causes of error. These are, authority, custom, the opinion of the unskilled many, and the concealment of real ignorance with pretence of knowledge. The last error is the most dangerous, and is, in a sense, the cause of all the others. The _offendicula_ have sometimes been looked upon as an anticipation of Francis Bacon's _Idola_, but the two classifications have little in common. In the summary of this part, contained in the _Opus Tertium_, Bacon shows very clearly his perception of the unity of science and the necessity of encyclopaedic treatment.
Part II. (pp. 23-43) treats of the relation between philosophy and theology. All true wisdom is contained in the Scriptures, at least implicitly; and the true end of philosophy is to rise from the imperfect knowledge of created things to a knowledge of the Creator. Ancient philosophers, who had not the Scriptures, received direct illumination from God, and only thus can the brilliant results attained by them be accounted for.
Part III. (pp. 44-57) treats of the utility of grammar, and the necessity of a true linguistic science for the adequate comprehension either of the Scriptures or of books on philosophy. [v.03 p.0155] The necessity of accurate acquaintance with any foreign language and of obtaining good texts, is a subject Bacon is never weary of descanting upon. A translator should know thoroughly the language he is translating from, the language into which he is translating, and the subject of which the book treats.
Part IV. (pp. 57-255) contains an elaborate treatise on mathematics, "the alphabet of philosophy," maintaining that all the sciences rest ultimately on mathematics, and progress only when their facts can be subsumed under mathematical principles. This fruitful thought he illustrates by showing how geometry is applied to the action of natural bodies, and demonstrating by geometrical figures certain laws of physical forces. He also shows how his method may be used to determine some curious and long-discussed problems, such as the light of the stars, the ebb and flow of the tide, the motion of the balance. He then proceeds to adduce elaborate and sometimes slightly grotesque reasons tending to prove that mathematical knowledge is essential in theology, and closes this section of his work with two comprehensive sketches of geography and astronomy. That on geography is particularly good, and is interesting as having been read by Columbus, who lighted on it in Petrus de Alliaco's _Imago Mundi_, and was strongly influenced by its reasoning.
Part V. (pp. 256-357) treats of perspective. This was the part of his work on which Bacon most prided himself, and in it, we may add, he seems to owe most to the Arab writers Kindi and Alhazen. The treatise opens with an able sketch of psychology, founded upon, but in some important respects varying from, Aristotle's _De Anima_. The anatomy of the eye is next described; this is done well and evidently at first hand, though the functions of the parts are not given with complete accuracy. Many other points of physiological optics are touched on, in general erroneously. Bacon then discusses vision in a right line, the laws of reflection and refraction, and the construction of mirrors and lenses. In this part of the work, as in the preceding, his reasoning depends essentially upon his peculiar view of natural agents and their activities. His fundamental physical maxims are matter and force; the latter he calls _virtus_, _species_, _imago agentis_, and by numberless other names. Change, or any natural phenomenon, is produced by the impression of a virtus or species on matter--the result being the thing known. Physical action is, therefore, _impression_, or transmission of force in lines, and must accordingly be explained geometrically. This view of nature Bacon considered fundamental, and it lies, indeed, at the root of his whole philosophy. To the short notices of it given in the 4th and 5th parts of the _Opus Majus_, he subjoined two, or perhaps three, extended accounts of it. We possess at least one of these in the tract _De Multiplicatione Specierum_, printed as part of the _Opus Majus_ by Jebb (pp. 358-444). We cannot do more than refer to Charles for discussions as to how this theory of nature is connected with the metaphysical problems of force and matter, with the logical doctrine of universals, and in general with Bacon's theory of knowledge.
Part VI. (pp. 445-477) treats of experimental science, _domina omnium scientiarum_. There are two methods of knowledge: the one by argument, the other by experience. Mere argument is never sufficient; it may decide a question, but gives no satisfaction or certainty to the mind, which can only be convinced by immediate inspection or intuition. Now this is what experience gives. But experience is of two sorts, external and internal; the first is that usually called experiment, but it can give no complete knowledge even of corporeal things, much less of spiritual. On the other hand, in inner experience the mind is illuminated by the divine truth, and of this supernatural enlightenment there are seven grades.
Experimental science, which in the _Opus Tertium_ (p. 46) is distinguished from the speculative sciences and the operative arts in a way that forcibly reminds us of Francis Bacon, is said to have three great prerogatives over all other sciences:--(1) It verifies their conclusions by direct experiment; (2) It discovers truths which they could never reach; (3) It investigates the secrets of nature, and opens to us a knowledge of past and future. As an instance of his method, Bacon gives an investigation into the nature and cause of the rainbow, which is really a very fine specimen of inductive research.
The seventh part of the _Opus Majus_ (_De Morali Philosophia_), not given in Jebb's edition, is noticed at considerable length in the _Opus Tertium_ (cap. xiv.). Extracts from it are given by Charles (pp. 339-348).
As has been seen, Bacon had no sooner finished this elaborate work than he began to prepare a summary to be sent along with it. Of this summary, or _Opus Minus_, part has come down and is published in Brewer's _Op. Ined._ (313-389), from what appears to be the only MS. The work was intended to contain an abstract of the _Opus Majus_, an account of the principal vices of theology, and treatises on speculative and practical alchemy. At the same time, or immediately after, Bacon began a third work as a preamble to the other two, giving their general scope and aim, but supplementing them in many points. The part of this work, generally called _Opus Tertium_, is printed by Brewer (pp. 1-310), who considers it to be a complete treatise.
Charles, however, has given good grounds for supposing that it is merely a preface, and that the work went on to discuss grammar, logic (which Bacon thought of little service, as reasoning was innate), mathematics, general physics, metaphysics and moral philosophy. He founds his argument mainly on passages in the _Communia Naturalium_, which indeed prove distinctly that it was sent to Clement, and cannot, therefore, form part of the _Compendium_, as Brewer seems to think. It must be confessed, however, that nothing can well be more confusing than the references in Bacon's works, and it seems well-nigh hopeless to attempt a complete arrangement of them until the texts have been collated and carefully printed.
All these large works Bacon appears to have looked on as preliminaries, introductions, leading to a great work which should embrace the principles of all the sciences. This great work, which is perhaps the frequently-referred-to _Liber Sex Scientiarum_, he began, and a few fragments still indicate its outline. First appears to have come the treatise now called _Compendium Studii Philosophiae_ (Brewer pp. 393-519), containing an account of the causes of error, and then entering at length upon grammar. After that, apparently, logic was to be treated; then, possibly, mathematics and physics; then speculative alchemy and experimental science. It is, however, very difficult, in the present state of our knowledge of the MSS., to hazard even conjectures as to the contents and nature of this last and most comprehensive work.
Bacon's fame in popular estimation has always rested on his mechanical discoveries. Careful research has shown that very little can with accuracy be ascribed to him. He certainly describes a method of constructing a telescope, but not so as to lead one to conclude that he was in possession of that instrument. Burning-glasses were in common use, and spectacles it does not appear he made, although he was probably acquainted with the principle of their construction. His wonderful predictions (in the _De Secretis_) must be taken _cum grano salis_; he believed in astrology, in the doctrine of signatures, and in the philosopher's stone, and _knew_ that the circle had been squared. For his work in connexion with gunpowder, the invention of which has been claimed for him on the ground of a passage in his _De mirabili potestate artis et naturae_, see GUNPOWDER.
_Summary._--The 13th century, an age peculiarly rich in great men, produced few, if any, who can take higher rank than Roger Bacon. He is in every way worthy to be placed beside Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, and Thomas Aquinas. These had an infinitely wider renown in their day, but modern criticism has restored the balance in his favour, and is even in danger of erring in the opposite direction. Bacon, it is now said, was not appreciated by his age because he was in advance of it; he is no schoolman, but a modern thinker, whose conceptions of science are more just and clear than are even those of his more celebrated namesake.[4] In this view there is certainly some truth, but it is much exaggerated. As a general rule, no man can be completely dissevered from his national antecedents and [v.03 p.0156] surroundings, and Bacon is not an exception. Those who take up such an extreme position regarding his merits have known too little of the state of contemporary science, and have limited their comparison to the works of the scholastic theologians. We never find in Bacon himself any consciousness of originality; he is rather a keen and systematic thinker, working in a well-beaten track, from which his contemporaries were being drawn by theology and metaphysics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best work on Roger Bacon is perhaps that of E. Charles, _Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines d'apres des textes inedits_ (1861). Against the somewhat enthusiastic estimate and modern interpretation given in this work, are Schneider in his _Roger Bacon, Eine Monographie_ (Augsburg, 1873); K. Werner, _Die Psychol. ... des Roger Bacon_ and _Die Kosmologie ... des Roger Bacon_ (Vienna, 1879); S. A.
Hirsch, _Early English Hebraists_ (1899); _Book of Essays_ (London, 1905), deals with Bacon as a Hebraist. The new matter contained in the publications of Charles and Brewer was summarized by H. Siebert, _Roger Bacon: Inaugural Dissertation_ (Marburg, 1861). Cf. also J. K. Ingram, _On the Opus Majus of Bacon_ (Dublin, 1858); Cousin, "Fragments phil. du moyen age" (reprinted from _Journal des savans_, 1848); E. Saisset, "Precurseurs et disciples de Descartes," pp. 1-58 (reprinted from _Revue de deux mondes_, 1861); K. Prantl, _Gesch. der Logik_, iii. 120-129 (a severe criticism of Bacon's logical doctrines); Held, _Roger Bacon's praktische Philosophie_ (Jena, 1881); Karl Pohl, _Das Verhaltniss d. Philos. zur Theol. bei Roger Bacon_ (Neustrelitz, 1893); articles in _Westminster Review_, lxxxi. 1 and 512; A. Parrot, _Roger Bacon et ses contemporains_ (1894); E. Fluegel, _Roger Bacons Stellung in d. Gesch. d. Philos._ (1902); S. Vogl, _Die Physik Roger Bacos_ (1906). For the popular legend see _Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon_ (London, 1615; reproduced in Thoms, _Early Prose Romances_, iii.); R. Greene's _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (1587 or 1588), and in publication of the Percy Society, vol. xv. 1844, _A Piece of Friar Bacon's Brazen Heade's Prophesie_ (1604). For Bacon as a classical scholar see J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ (2nd ed., 1906), cxxxi.
(R. AD.; X.)
[1] Brewer thinks this unknown professor is Richard of Cornwall, but the little we know of Richard is not in harmony with the terms in which he is elsewhere spoken of by Bacon. Erdmann conjectures Thomas Aquinas, which is extremely improbable, as Thomas was unquestionably not the first of his order to study philosophy. Cousin and Charles think that Albertus Magnus is aimed at, and certainly much of what is said applies with peculiar force to him. But some things do not at all cohere with what is otherwise known of Albert. It is worth pointing out that Brewer, in transcribing the passage bearing on this (_Op. Ined._ p. 327), has the words _fratrum puerulus_, which in his marginal note he interprets as applying to the Franciscan order. In this case, of course, Albert could not be the person referred to, as he was a Dominican. But Charles, in his transcription, entirely omits the important word _fratrum_.
[2] The more important MSS. are:--(1) The extensive work on the fundamental notions of physics, called _Communia Naturalium_, which is found in the Mazarin library at Paris, in the British Museum, and in the Bodleian and University College libraries at Oxford; (2) on the fundamental notions of mathematics, _De Communibus Mathematicae_, part of which is in the Sloane collection, part in the Bodleian; (3) _Baconis Physica_, contained among the additional MSS. in the British Museum; (4) the fragment called _Quinta Pars Compendii Theologiae_, in the British Museum; (5) the _Compendium Studii Theologiae_, in the British Museum; (6) the logical fragments, such as the _Summulae Dialectices_, in the Bodleian, and the glosses upon Aristotle's physics and metaphysics in the library at Amiens. See Little, _The Grey Friars in Oxford_ (1892).
[3] At the close of the _Verb. Abbrev._ is a curious note, concluding with the words, "_ipse Rogerus fuit discipulus fratris Alberti!_"
[4] See Duhring, _Kritische Ges. d. Phil._ 192, 249-251.
BACON (through the O. Fr. _bacon_, Low Lat. _baco_, from a Teutonic word cognate with "back," _e.g._ O. H. Ger. _pacho_, M. H. Ger. _backe_, buttock, flitch of bacon), the flesh of the sides and back of the pig, cured by salting, drying, pickling and smoking.