Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st Century B.C. His work of ten books contains some very minor references to pumps and machinery, building stones, and the preparation of pigments, the latter involving operations from which metallurgical deductions can occasionally be safely made. His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496.
There are many editions in various languages, the first English translation being from the French in 1692. We have relied upon the translation of Joseph Gwilt, London, 1875, with such alterations as we have considered necessary.
MEDIaeVAL AUTHORS.--For convenience we group under this heading the writers of interest from Roman times to the awakening of learning in the early 16th Century. Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists; but, nevertheless, some are of great importance in the history of metallurgy and chemistry. Omitting a horde of lesser lights upon whom we have given some data under the author's preface, the works principally concerned are those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine. Judging from the Preface to _De Re Metallica_, and from quotations in his subsidiary works, Agricola must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had been translated into Latin. The Arabs were, of course, the only race which kept the light of science burning during the Dark Ages, and their works were in considerable vogue at Agricola's time.
Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator of the Greek classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the extent of attempting to reconcile the Peripatetic elements with those of the alchemists. He is chiefly known to the world through the works which he compiled on medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. These works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in certain European Universities until the 17th century. A great many works are attributed to him, and he is copiously quoted by Agricola, principally in his _De Ortu et Causis_, apparently for the purpose of exposure.
Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely upon working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. An excellent translation, with the Latin text, was published by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title "An Essay upon various Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and Monk." Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of Theophilus as the latter half of the 11th century. The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural decoration, pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc.
However, he incidentally describes the making of metallurgical furnaces, cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation with salt, and by melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it, and the refining of copper under a blast with poling.
Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period somewhere between the 7th and 12th centuries. A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature which exists in discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp's _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Chemie_, Braunschweig, 1875, and in John Ferguson's _Bibliotheca Chemica_, Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his _Chimie au Moyen Age_, Paris, 1893, considers the works under the name of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar in the 13th century. In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. They were first translated into English by Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's view, is one of the most important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness of statement unique among alchemists. The making of the mineral acids--certainly nitric and _aqua regia_, and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric--are here first described. The author was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkali, and with the acids he prepared many salts for the first time. He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of gold and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. His views on the primary composition of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for centuries. He contended that all metals were composed of "spiritual"
sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special form of sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding different metals. The more the quicksilver, the more "perfect" the metal.
Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards Bishop, born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most learned man of his time, and evidence of his literary activities lies in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre Jammy, Lyons, 1651, which comprises 21 folio volumes. However, there is little doubt that a great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. He covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural science, and of the latter the following works which concern our subject are considered genuine:--_De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus_, _De Generatione et Corruptione_, and _De Meteoris_. They are little more than compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in general an attempt to conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. His position in the history of science has been greatly over-estimated. However, his mineralogy is, except for books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and Agricola, and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be found in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of science, especially as some attempt at classification is made. Agricola devotes some thousands of words to the refutation of his "errors."
Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a man of considerable scientific attainments for his time. He was the author of a large number of mathematical, philosophical, and alchemistic treatises. The latter are of some importance in the history of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre.
Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of which none appeared in print until early in the 17th century.
Internal evidence seems to indicate that the "Triumphant Chariot of Antimony" is the only one which may possibly be authentic, and could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th century, although it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has been accredited the first mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial salts. At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all these things were well known, and had been previously described. We are, therefore, in much doubt as to whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy.
EARLY 16th CENTURY WORKS.--During the 16th century, and prior to _De Re Metallica_, there are only three works of importance from the point of view of mining technology--the _Nutzlich Bergbuchlin_, the _Probierbuchlein_, and Biringuccio's _De La Pirotechnia_. There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated statements, particularly those of Paracelsus. The three works mentioned, however, represent such a stride of advance over anything previous, that they merit careful consideration.
_Eyn Nutzlich Bergbuchlin._ Under this title we frequently refer to a little booklet on veins and ores, published at the beginning of the 16th century. The title page of our copy is as below:--
[Illustration 610 (Title page)]
This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has no typographical indications upon the title page, but the last line in the book reads: _Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch Johan Loersfelt, 1527_.
Another edition in our possession, that of "Frankfurt am Meyn", 1533, by Christian Egenolph, is entitled _Bergwerk und Probierbuchlin_, etc., and contains, besides the above, an extract and plates from the _Probierbuchlein_ (referred to later on), and a few recipes for assay tests. All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise instructions from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, "his mining boy". Although the little books of this title are all anonymous, we are convinced, largely from the statement in the Preface of _De Re Metallica_, that one Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this work. Agricola says: "Two books have been written in our tongue: the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author is unknown; the other 'On Veins', of which Pandulfus Anglus is also said to have written, _although the German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task he had begun_." He again refers to Calbus at the end of Book III.[2] of _De Re Metallica_, and gives an almost verbatim quotation from the _Nutzlich Bergbuchlin_. Jacobi[3] says: "Calbus Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than the Freiberg doctor, Ruhlein von C(K)albe." There are also certain internal evidences that support Agricola's statement, for the work was evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that the book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of the earlier editions, designed to introduce further discussion. Calbus (or Dr. Ulrich Ruhlein von Kalbe) was a very active citizen of Freiberg, having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts, and in general a physician. He died in 1523.[4] The book possesses great literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware, undoubtedly the first work on mining geology, and in consequence we have spent some effort in endeavour to find the date of its first appearance. Through the courtesy of M. Polain, who has carefully examined for us the _Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_ described in Marie Pellechet's _Catalogue General des Incunables des Bibliotheques Publiques de France_,[5] we have ascertained that it is similar as regards text and woodcuts to the Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy in the Bibliotheque Nationale is without typographical indications, and M. Polain considers it very possible that it is the original edition printed at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Mr. Bennett Brough,[6] quoting Hans von Dechen,[7] states that the first edition was printed at Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems to be extant. The Librarian at the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us with the following notes as to the titles of the copies in that Institution:--(1) _Eyn Wolgeordent und Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_, etc., Worms, 1512[8] and 1518[9] (the place and date are written in), (2) the same as ours (1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg, 1534; (4) the same, 1539. On comparing these various editions (to which may be added one probably published in Nurnberg by Friedrich Peypus in 1532[10]) we find that they fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by their contents and by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.
Group I.
(_a_) _Eyn Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_ (in _Bibl. Nat._, Paris) before 1500 (?).
(_b_) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.
Group II.
(_c_) _Wolgeordent Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_, Worms, Peter Schofern, 1512.
(_d_) _Wolgeordent Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_, Worms, Peter Schofern, 1518.
(_e_) _Bergbuchlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck_, Nurnberg, undated, 1532 (?).
(_f_) _Bergwerckbuch & Probirbuch_, Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.
(_g_) _Wolgeordent Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1534.
(_h_) _Wolgeordent Nutzlich Bergbuchlein_, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1539.
There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth century.
The _Buchlein_ of Group I. terminate after the short dialogue between Daniel and Knappius with the words: _Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt soil werden_; whereas in those of Group II. these words are followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the woodcuts, and by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some cases by several pages containing definitions of some 92 mining terms. In the editions of Group I. the woodcut on the title page represents a miner hewing ore in a vein and two others working a windlass. In those of Group II. the woodcut on the title page represents one miner hewing on the surface, another to the right carting away ore in a handcart, and two others carrying between them a heavy timber. In our opinion Group I. represents the older and original work of Calbus; but as we have not seen the copy in the _Bibliotheque Nationale_, and the Augsburg edition of 1505 has only so far been traced to Veith's catalogue,[11] the question of the first edition cannot be considered settled at present. In any event, it appears that the material grafted on in the second group was later, and by various authors.
The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about 6,000 words of instruction. The first four chapters are devoted to the description of veins and the origin of the metals, of the remaining six chapters one each to silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, lead, and quicksilver. Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country rock (_zechstein_), hanging and footwalls (_hangends_ and _liegends_), the strike (_streichen_), dip (_fallen_), and outcrop (_ausgehen_). Of the latter two varieties are given, one of the "whole vein," the other of the _gesteins_, which may be the ore-shoot. Various veins are illustrated, and also for the first time a mining compass. The account of the origin of the metals is a muddle of the Peripatetics, the alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus Magnus is given. They are represented to originate from quicksilver and sulphur through heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as exhalations through the veins, each metal owing its origin to the special influence of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for lead, etc. Two types of veins are mentioned, "standing" (_stehendergang_) and flat (_flachgang_). Stringers are given the same characteristics as veins, but divided into hanging, footwall, and other varieties.
Prominence is also given to the _geschick_ (selvage seams or joints?).
The importance of the bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers on enrichment is elaborated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying upon a south slope are considered the best. From the following notes it will be seen that two or three other types of deposits besides veins are referred to.
In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the association of bismuth (_wismuth_), this being, we believe, the first mention of that metal, galena (_glantz_), quartz (_quertz_), spar (_spar_), hornstone (_hornstein_), ironstone and pyrites (_kies_), are mentioned as gangue materials, "according to the mingling of the various vapours." The term _glasertz_ is used, but it is difficult to say if silver glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral.
So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print.
Gold alluvial is described, part of the gold being assumed as generated in the gravel. The best alluvial is in streams running east and west.
The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is found "in some places as a complete stratum carried through horizontally, and is called a _schwebender gang_." This sort of occurrence is not considered very good "because the work of the heavens can be but little completed on account of the unsuitability of the position." Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. Tin is mentioned as found in alluvial, and also in veins, the latter being better or worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the latter can be burned off. Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in veins sometimes with pyrites. The ore from veins is better than schist.
Iron ore is found in masses, and sometimes in veins; the latter is the best. "The iron veins with good hanging- and foot-walls are not to be despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to the south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone is followed down, the vein usually reveals gold or other valuable ore".
Lead ore is found in _schwebenden gang_ and _stehenden gang_.
Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. The classification of veins is the same as in _De Re Metallica_.[12] The book generally, however, seems to have raised Agricola's opposition, for the quotations are given in order to be demolished.
_Probierbuchlein._ Agricola refers in the Preface of _De Re Metallica_ to a work in German on assaying and refining metals, and it is our belief that it was to some one of the little assay books published early in the 16th century. There are several of them, seemingly revised editions of each other; in the early ones no author's name appears, although among the later editions various names appear on the title page. An examination of these little books discloses the fact that their main contents are identical, for they are really collections of recipes after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the memory of those already skilled than to instruct the novice. The books appear to have grown by accretions from many sources, for a large number of methods are given over and over again in the same book with slight variations. We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.
[Illustration 612 (Title page)]
The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to discover actual copies:--
_Date._ _Place._ _Publisher._ _Title (Short)._ _Author._
Unknown Unknown Unknown _Probierbuchlein_ Anon.
(Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg, 1510.)
1524 Magdeburg _Probirbuchleyn Anon.
tzu Gotteslob_
1531 Augsburg Unknown _Probierbuch aller Anon.
Sachsischer Ertze_
1533 Frankfurt a. _Bergwerck und Anon.
Meyn Probierbuchlein_
1534 Augsburg Heinrich _Probirbuchlein_ Anon.
Steyner, 8vo.
1546 Augsburg Ditto, ditto _Probirbuchlein_ Anon.
1549 Augsburg Ditto, ditto _Probirbuchlein_ Anon.
1564 Augsburg Math. Francke, _Probirbuchlein_ Zach. Lochner 4to
1573 Augsburg 8vo. _Probirbuch_ Sam. Zimmermann
1574 Franckfurt _Probierbuchlein_ Anon.
a. Meyn