=TAN'TALUM.= Ta. _Syn._ COLUMBIUM. A rare metal discovered by Mr Hatchett, in 1801, in a mineral from Massachusetts; and by M. Ekeberg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral found in Sweden. It exists in most of its ores in combination with oxygen.
=TAPEWORM.= See WORMS.
=TAPEWORM CURE= (Bloch, Vienna). Coarsely powdered pomegranate root bark, 125 grammes, boiled for half an hour in 800 grammes water. To this add solution of ammonia, 5 grammes; boil again for a quarter of an hour. Add kousso flowers 25 grammes. Again boil for a few minutes, and when cold add citric acid, 1 gramme; and alcohol, 30 grammes. Press, filter, and set aside. The product should weigh about 500 grammes. Klinger says this remedy is merely a concentrated essence of pomegranate root bark, and contains neither ammonia nor citric acid.
=Tapeworm Cure= (Jacoby, Berlin). A box containing 20 grammes of kousso powder and directions for use. (Hager.)
=Tapeworm Cure= (Mix). (_a_) A mixture containing 3 decigrammes of sulphate of quinine, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid to dissolve it in 200 grammes water. To be taken in the course of three days. (_b_) A box with 12 grammes kousso powder. A teaspoonful to be taken each morning in black coffee. (Schadler.)
=Tapeworm Cure= (Richard Mohrmann, Frankenberg, Saxony). This Mohrmann travels about in the fashion of the old charlatans, to sell his medicines.
These consist of two varieties, the first being 10 grammes of extract of male fern, the second a mixture of 8 grammes each of raspberry juice and castor oil. These remedies have been used for tapeworm for almost 100 years. The doctor's directions for use are to mix 30 grammes of the extract with the castor oil and raspberry compound, and 30 drops of the mixture to be taken every quarter of an hour, until purging occurs.
=Tapeworm Cure= (Mork, Berlin). A decoction of about 110 grammes of pomegranate root bark, yielding 400 grammes of liquid, and mixed 1 gramme of extract of male fern. The directions order that on one day one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil should be taken, a herring salad in the evening, and the following morning, after coffee, a third of the contents of the bottle, another third half an hour later, and the remainder in yet another half hour. (Hager.)
=Tapeworm Cure for Children and Adults= (E. Karig, Berlin). Burned oxide of copper, 1 gramme; cassia powder, 1-1/2 gramme; sugar of milk, 10 grammes. Divide in 24 powders. (Schadler.)
=Tapeworm Pills, Laffon's=, are compounded of the ethereal extract of the root of _Aspidium Lonchitis_, _Asp. Helveticum_, and _Asp. Filixmas_, together with the alcoholic extract of the flowers of _Achillea mutellina_ and _maschata_, and the powder of the flowers of _Arnica Doronicum_.
(Wittstein.)
=Tapeworm Pills, Peschier's.=--Ethereal extract and powder of the rhizome of male fern, of each gramme 16 make 20 pills. Take ten at night and ten in the morning.
=TAPIO'CA.= _Syn._ TAPIOCA (Ph. E. & D.), L. The fecula of the root of _Janipha manihot_ (_Jatropha manihot_--Linn.), which has been well washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by which it assumes the appearance of warty-looking granules.
[Illustration: Microscopic appearance of tapioca.]
Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only slightly soluble in cold water, but entirely soluble in boiling water, forming a translucent and highly nutritious jelly. Its granules are muller-shaped, about 1/2000 of an inch in diameter, and display very marked hilums. It is used in a similar manner to sago and arrow-root. See CASSAVA.
=TAPS, WOODEN (to prevent their cracking).= The taps are placed in mother paraffin, heated to from 110 to 120; by this means the water is eliminated from the wood, and the wood becomes thoroughly impregnated with paraffin. The taps are heated in this bath until all the aqueous vapour has been expelled, and are left in it, after the removal of the vessel from the fire, up to the very moment the paraffin begins to solidify.
Wooden taps thus prepared are very durable, do not become soaked with liquids, keep very tight, and are not liable to become mouldy. The excess of paraffin is wiped off with care, and the taps are next rubbed clean with a piece of flannel. (Dr E. Kopp.)[224]
[Footnote 224: 'Chemical News.']
=TAR.= _Syn._ PIX LIQUIDA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from the wood of _Pinus sylvestris_, and other species, by heat.
The chemical constitution of tar is very complicated. Its uses in the arts are well known. As a medicine it is stimulant, diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge.--_Dose_, 20 to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in ichthyosis, &c. Externally, in lepra, psoriasis, foul ulcers, &c. See OINTMENT and INFUSION.
=Tar, Barbadoes.= _Syn._ PIX LIQUIDA BARBADENSIS, PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, PETROLEUM (Ph. L. and E.), L. "Black liquid bitumen, exuding spontaneously from the earth." (Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part resemble those of the last.--_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, &c. Externally, in chilblains, chronic and rheumatic pains, &c. See PETROLEUM.
=Tar, Coal.= Produced during the distillation of bituminous coal for gas.
See NAPHTHA, &c.
=TARAX'ACUM.= See DANDELION.
=TAR COLOURS.= _Syn._ COAL TAR COLOURS, ANILINE COLOURS, &c. Coal tar, the source of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, during the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and collected in a tank from the hydraulic main and condensers.
The composition of coal tar is highly complex, the most important constituents being, however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as 'coal naphtha.' Naphtha, by rectification between 180 and 250 Fahr. (82 and 121 Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp. gr. 88, the benzol of commerce.
By the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter almonds is obtained. In commerce this substance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight covers, and provided with stirrers worked by steam power. By means of pipes the reagents are admitted and the nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol and the spent reagents are drawn off from the bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously run in, the whole being well stirred throughout. When finished, the contents are drawn off, and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a solution of soda. See BENZOL.
Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a similar apparatus, only provided with means of admitting a current of superheated steam, and condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as the reduction is violent, stirring well all the time. A current of superheated steam is passed through, and the aniline collected as it distils over as a pale, sherry-coloured oily liquid, boiling at 360 Fahr. (182 Cent.), and of sp. gr. 102. See ANILINE.
MAUVE, INDISINE, VIOLINE, PHENAMINE, the first-discovered coal tar, or aniline colour, was obtained by Mr Perkins during some experiments directed towards the artificial formation of quinine, and was also first practically manufactured by Mr Perkins. Commercially, mauve is made as follows:
Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper proportions are dissolved in water in a vat by aid of heat, and when cold a solution of bichromate of potassium added, and the whole allowed to stand a day or two, when a black precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. This black resinous substance is digested with dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus, to dissolve out the mauve, and the major portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve is precipitated from the aqueous solution left behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing is either drained to a paste or dried.
The amount of mauve thus obtained is but small in comparison with the raw material, coal tar, as 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12 oz. of coal tar; 8-1/2 oz. of mineral naphtha, 2-3/4 oz. of benzol; 4-1/4 oz. of nitro-benzol, 2-1/4 oz. of aniline, and 1/4 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market in paste or solution, the expense of the crystals being heavy, and offering no corresponding advantages.
Other salts than the bichromate of potassium have been employed to convert aniline into mauve, as chloride of copper, permanganate of potassium, &c.; but experience has shown none to possess the same advantages as the bichromate of potassium.
MAUVEINE, the organic base of mauve or aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of the formula C_{27}H_{24}N_{3}, yielding a dull violet solution. The moment, however, mauveine is brought in contact with an acid, it turns a magnificent purple colour. The salts of mauveine form beautiful crystals possessing a splendid green metallic lustre, soluble very readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The commercial salt, or mauve, is the acetate, or sometimes the hydrochlorate.
=Magenta.= _Syn._ ANILINE RED, ROSEINE, FUCHSINE, AZALEINE, SOLFERINO, TYRALINE. Various processes have been proposed and patented for the preparation of this commercially important coal-tar colour. Amongst these processes are--
1. Gerber-Keller's, patented in France, October 29th, 1859. By this the aniline is treated with mercuric nitrate.
2. Lauth and Depouilly used nitric acid.
3. Medlock (patent dated January, 1860). Nicholson, and Messrs Girard and De Laire, all in 1860, separately patented the use of arsenic acid. This process, being the one now almost exclusively employed, is thus described in Crace Calvert's work, 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Messrs Stenhouse and Grove. "The manufacture of magenta, as it is now conducted in the large colour works, is a comparatively simple process, the apparatus employed consisting of a large cast-iron pot set in a furnace, provided with means of carefully regulating the heat. It is furnished with a stirrer, which can be worked by hand or by mechanical means, the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid, so that by means of a crane the lid may be removed, together with the stirrer and gearing. There is also a bent tube passing through the lid for the exit of the vapours, which can be easily connected or disconnected with a worm at pleasure; lastly, there are large openings at the bottom of the pot, closed by suitable stoppers, so that the charge can be removed with facility as soon as the reaction is complete. Into this apparatus, which is capable of holding about 500 gallons, a charge of 2740 lbs. of a concentrated solution of arsenic acid, containing 72% of the anhydrous acid, is introduced, together with 1600 lbs. of commercial aniline. The aniline selected for this purpose should contain about 25% of the toluidine.
"After the materials have been thoroughly mixed by the stirrer the fire is lighted, and the temperature gradually raised to about 360 F. In a short time water begins to distil, then aniline makes its appearance along with the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes over, which is nearly pure, containing, as it does, but a very small per centage of toluidine. The operation usually lasts about eight or ten hours, during which time about 170 gallons of liquid pass over, and are condensed in the worm attached to the apparatus; of this about 150 lbs. are aniline. The temperature should not exceed 380 F. at any period during the operation. When this is complete steam is blown in through a tube, in order to sweep out the last traces of the free aniline, and boiling water is gradually introduced in quantity sufficient to convert the contents into a homogenous liquid. When this occurs the liquid is run out of the openings at the bottom into cisterns provided with agitators; here more boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 galls. to every 600 lbs. of crude magenta, and also 6 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. The mass is then boiled for four or five hours by means of steam pipes, the agitators being kept in constant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, arsenite, and arseniate of rosaniline thus obtained is filtered through woollen cloth, and 720 lbs.
of common salt added to the liquid (which is kept boiling) for each 600 lbs. of crude magenta. By this means the whole of the rosaniline is converted into hydrochloride, which, being nearly insoluble in the strong solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium produced in the double decomposition, separates and rises to the surface; a further quantity is deposited from the saline solution on allowing it to cool and stand for some time. In order to purify the crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is washed with a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and allowed to crystallise."
If in the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid the latter be considerably beyond the proportion of aniline employed, VIOLET and BLUE dyes may be formed. The production of such has been patented by Girard and De Laire.
4. Laurent and Casthelaz have obtained aniline red direct from benzol, without the preliminary isolation of aniline. Nitrobenzol is treated with twice its weight of iron finely divided, and half its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter obtained by this process is said to be inferior in beauty to that procured from aniline.
5. Messrs Renard Brothers include in their patent the ebullition of aniline with stannous, stannic, mercurous, and mercuric sulphates, with ferric and uranic nitrates and nitrate of silver, and with stannic and mercuric bromides.
6. Messrs Dale and Curo's (patent dated 1860) consists in the treatment of aniline or hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead.
7. Mr Smith claims the ebullition of aniline with perchloride of antimony, or the action of antimonic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic, ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hydrochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the temperature of 180.
Coupier's process for the manufacture of magenta without the use of arsenic acid is as follows:--He heats together pure aniline, nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small quantity of finely-divided metallic iron, to a temperature of about 400 F. for several hours. The pasty mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resembling crude aniline red--ordinary commercial aniline. The above processes are for the preparation of crude aniline red only. The crude colours contain some undecomposed aniline, mostly in the form of salts. They are also contaminated with tarry matters, some insoluble in water and dilute acids; others soluble in bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, or in caustic or carbonated alkalies. If, therefore, the crude red be boiled with an excess of alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled, the acid which exists in the product being fixed. On treating the residue with acidulated boiling water the red is dissolved, while certain tarry matters remain insoluble. If now the boiling solution be filtered, and then saturated with an alkali, the colouring matter is precipitated in a tolerable state of purity. By redissolving the precipitated red in an acid, not employed in excess, a solution is obtained which frequently crystallises, or from which a pure red may be thrown down by a new addition of chloride of sodium or other alkaline salt.
Dr Hofmann and Mr Nicholson have demonstrated that pure aniline, from whatever source obtained, is incapable of furnishing a red dye, but that it does so when mixed with its homologue toluidine--toluidine by itself being equally incapable of yielding it. From this it will be evident that an aniline rich in toluidine is an essential condition for obtaining aniline red.
Magenta consists of brilliant large crystals, having a beautiful golden-green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colourless base, rosaniline, which is prepared from magenta by boiling with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solution to cool, when it crystallises out in colourless crystals, having the formula C_{20}H_{19}N_{3}H_{2}O. All the salts of rosaniline have a splendid purple-red colour, and that usually met with as magenta is the hydrochlorate, although the nitrate, oxalate, and acetate are also to be obtained.
Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is sometimes used as an adulterant of crystallised magenta. If present, the larger crystals of dyed sugar may be readily detected by their colour being paler at the edges, when the suspected sample is spread out on a sheet of white paper in the sunshine.
One of the best methods of testing magenta is to make a comparative dyeing experiment with the sample under examination, and with one of known purity, using white woollen yarn.
From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline a large number of colouring matters are produced, the most important of which will be briefly described below.
ANILINE BLACK. "Dissolve 20 parts of potassium chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 parts of chloride of ammonium, and 40 parts of aniline hydrochloride, in 500 parts of water, warming the liquid to about 60, and then removing it from the water bath. In about three minutes the solution froths up and gives off vapours which strongly attack the breathing organs. If the mass does not become quite black after the lapse of a few hours it is again heated to 60, and then exposed in an open place for a day or two, and afterwards carefully washed out till no salts are found in the filtrate. For use in printing, the black paste is mixed with a somewhat large quantity of albumen, and the goods after printing are strongly steamed. The paste can be pressed into moulds, and used as a substitute for Indian ink." (A. Muller.) "Mix equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine), hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute quantity of cupric chloride and a sufficient quantity of water, and leave the mixture to evaporate spontaneously, when a black powder will be obtained." (Rheineck.)
ANILINE BLUE, or BLEU DE LYONS. This dye is prepared by heating a mixture of magenta, acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath, to 370 Fahr. (190 C.), and the excess of aniline distilled over. When a good blue has been obtained the heat is removed, and the thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected for the commoner varieties by treating the crude product with hydrochloric acid, to dissolve all the excess of aniline, and the various red and purple impurities; but for the better qualities by mixing the crude product with methylated spirit, and pouring the whole into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and then thoroughly washing the colouring matter that is precipitated, with water and drying.
This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colourless base, which has been named Triphenyl-rosaniline. C_{38}H_{31}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{16}(C_{6}H_{5})_{3}N_{3}. Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the market either as a coarse powder of a coppery lustre, or in alcoholic solution; as it is insoluble in water, which necessitates it being added to the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great drawback.