Taste Organs.--The surface of the tongue is folded into a number of little projections known as papillae. These may be more easily found on your own tongue if a drop of vinegar is placed on its broad surface. In the folds, between these projections on the top and back part of the tongue, are located the organs of taste. These organs are called _taste buds_.
[Illustration: _A_, isolated taste bud, from whose upper free end project the ends of the taste cells; _B_, supporting or protecting cell; _C_, sensory cell.]
Each taste bud consists of a collection of spindle-shaped neurones, each cell tipped at its outer end with a hairlike projection. These cells send inward fibers to other cells, the fibers from which ultimately reach the brain. The sensory cells are surrounded by a number of projecting cells which are arranged in layers about them. Thus the organ in longitudinal section looks somewhat like an onion cut lengthwise.
How we Taste.--Four kinds of substances may be distinguished by the sense of taste. These are sweet, sour, bitter, and salt. Certain taste cells located near the back of the tongue are stimulated only by a bitter taste.
Sweet substances are perceived by cells near the tip of the tongue, sour substances along the sides, and salt about equally all over the surface. A substance must be dissolved in fluid in order to be tasted. Many things which we believe we taste are in reality perceived by the sense of smell.
Such are spicy sauces and flavors of meats and vegetables. This may easily be proved by holding the nose and chewing, with closed eyes, several different substances, such as an apple, an onion, and a raw potato.
Smell.--The sense of smell is located in the membrane lining the upper part of the nose. Here are found a large number of rod-shaped cells which are connected with the brain by means of the olfactory nerve. In order to perceive odors, it is necessary to have them diffused in the air; hence we sniff so as to draw in more air over the olfactory cells.
The Organ of Hearing.--The organ of hearing is the ear. The outer ear consists of a funnel-like organ composed largely of cartilage which is of use in collecting sound waves. This part of the ear incloses the auditory canal, which is closed at the inner end by a tightly stretched membrane, the _tympanic membrane_ or ear drum. The function of the tympanic membrane is to receive sound waves, for all sound is caused by vibrations in the air, these vibrations being transmitted, by the means of a complicated apparatus found in the middle ear, to the real organ of hearing located in the inner ear.
[Illustration: Section of ear: _E.M._, auditory canal; _Ty.M._, tympanic membrane; _Eu._, Eustachian tube; _Ty_, middle ear; _Coc._, _A.S.C._, _E.S.C._, etc., internal ear.]
Middle Ear.--The middle ear in man is a cavity inclosed by the temporal bone, and separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane. A little tube called the _Eustachian tube_ connects the inner ear with the mouth cavity. By allowing air to enter from the mouth, the air pressure is equalized on the ear drum. For this reason, we open the mouth at the time of a heavy concussion and thus prevent the rupture of the delicate tympanic membrane. Placed directly against the tympanic membrane and connecting it with the inner ear is a chain of three tiny bones, the smallest bones of the body. The outermost is called the _hammer_; the next the _anvil_; the third the _stirrup_. All three bones are so called from their resemblances in shape to the articles for which they are named. These bones are held in place by very small muscles which are delicately adjusted so as to tighten or relax the membranes guarding the middle and inner ear.
The Inner Ear.--The inner ear is one of the most complicated, as well as one of the most delicate, organs of the body. Deep within the temporal bone there are found two parts, one of which is called, collectively, the _semicircular canal region_, the other the _cochlea_, or organ of hearing.
It has been discovered by experimenting with fish, in which the semicircular canal region forms the chief part of the ear, that this region has to do with the equilibrium or balancing of the body. We gain in part our knowledge of our position and movements in space by means of the _semicircular canals_.
That part of the ear which receives sound waves is known as the _cochlea_, or snail shell, because of its shape. This very complicated organ is lined with sensory cells provided with cilia. The cavity of the cochlea is filled with a fluid. It is believed that somewhat as a stone thrown into water causes ripples to emanate from the spot where it strikes, so sound waves are transmitted by means of the fluid filling the cavity to the sensory cells of the cochlea (collectively known as the _organ of Corti_) and thence to the brain by means of the auditory nerve.
The Character of Sound.--When vibrations which are received by the ear follow each other at regular intervals, the sound is said to be musical. If the vibrations come irregularly, we call the sound a noise. If the vibrations come slowly, the pitch of the sound is low; if they come rapidly, the pitch is high. The ear is able to perceive as low as thirty vibrations per second and as high as almost thirty thousand. The ear can be trained to recognize sounds which are unnoticed in untrained ears.
[Illustration: Longitudinal section through the eye.]
The Eye.--The eye or organ of vision is an almost spherical body which fits into a socket of bone, the _orbit_. A stalklike structure, the _optic nerve_, connects the eye with the brain. Free movement is obtained by means of six little muscles which are attached to the outer coat, the _eyeball_, and to the bony socket around the eye.
The wall of the eyeball is made up of three coats. An outer tough white coat, of connective tissue, is called the _sclerotic coat_. Under the sclerotic coat, in front, the eye bulges outward a little. Here the outer coat is continuous with a transparent tough layer called the _cornea_. A second coat, the _choroid_, is supplied with blood vessels and cells which bear pigments. It is a part of this coat which we see through the cornea as the colored part of the eye (the _iris_). In the center of the iris is a small circular hole (the _pupil_). The iris is under the control of muscles, and may be adjusted to varying amounts of light, the hole becoming larger in dim light, and smaller in bright light. The inmost layer of the eye is called the _retina_. This is, perhaps, the most delicate layer in the entire body. Despite the fact that the retina is less than 1/80 of an inch in thickness, there are several layers of cells in its composition.
The optic nerve enters the eye from behind and spreads out to form the surface of the retina. Its finest fibers are ultimately connected with numerous elongated cells which are stimulated by light. The retina is dark purple in color, this color being caused by a layer of cells next to the choroid coat. This accounts for the black appearance of the pupil of the eye, when we look through the pupil into the darkened space within the eyeball. The retina acts as the sensitized plate in the camera, for on it are received the impressions which are transformed and sent to the brain as sensations of sight. The eye, like the camera, has a lens. This lens is formed of transparent, elastic material. It is found directly behind the iris and is attached to the choroid coat by means of delicate ligaments. In front of the lens is a small cavity filled with a watery fluid, the _aqueous humor_, while behind it is the main cavity of the eye, filled with a transparent, almost jellylike, _vitreous humor_. The lens itself is elastic. This circumstance permits of a change of form and, in consequence, a change of focus upon the retina of the lens. By means of this change in form, or _accommodation_, we are able to distinguish between near and distant objects.
[Illustration: How far away can you read these letters? Measure the distance. Twenty feet is a test for the normal eye.]
Defects in the Eye.--In some eyes, the lens is in focus for near objects, but is not easily focused upon distant objects; such an eye is said to be nearsighted. Other eyes which do not focus clearly on objects near at hand are said to be farsighted. Still another eye defect is astigmatism, which causes images of lines in a certain direction to be indistinct, while images of lines transverse to the former are distinct. Many nervous troubles, especially headaches, may be due to eye strain. We should have our eyes examined from time to time, especially if we are subject to headaches.
The Alcohol Question.--It is agreed by investigators that in large or continued amounts alcohol has a narcotic effect; that it first dulls or paralyzes the nerve centers which control our judgment, and later acts upon the so-called motor centers, those which control our muscular activities.
The reason, then, that a man in the first stages of intoxication talks rapidly and sometimes wittily, is because the centers of judgment are paralyzed. This frees the speech centers from control exercised by our judgment, with the resultant rapid and free flow of speech.
In small amounts alcohol is believed by some physiologists to have always this same narcotic effect, while other physiologists think that alcohol does stimulate the brain centers, especially the higher centers, to increased activity. Some scientific and professional men use alcohol in small amounts for this stimulation and report no seeming harm from the indulgence. Others, and by far the larger number, agree that this stimulation from alcohol is only apparent and that even in the smallest amounts alcohol has a narcotic effect.
The Paralyzing Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System.--Alcohol has the effect of temporarily paralyzing the nerve centers. The first effect is that of exhilaration. A man may do more work for a time under the stimulation of alcohol. This stimulation, however, is of short duration and is invariably followed by a period of depression and inertia. In this latter state, a man will do less work than before. In larger quantities, alcohol has the effect of completely paralyzing the nerve centers. This is seen in the case of a man "dead drunk." He falls in a stupor because all of the centers governing speech, sight, locomotion, etc., have been temporarily paralyzed. If a man takes a very large amount of alcohol, even the nerve centers governing respiration and circulation may become poisoned, and the victim will die.
Effect on the Organs of Special Sense.--Professor Forel, one of the foremost European experts on the question of the effect of alcohol on the nervous system, says: "Through all parts of nervous activity from the innervation of the muscles and the simplest sensation to the highest activity of the soul the paralyzing effect of alcohol can be demonstrated."
Several experimenters of undoubted ability have noted the paralyzing effect of alcohol even in small doses. By the use of delicate instruments of precision, Ridge tested the effect of alcohol on the senses of smell, vision, and muscular sense of weight. He found that two drams of absolute alcohol produced a positive decrease in the sensitiveness of the nerves of feeling, that so small a quantity as one half dram of absolute alcohol diminished the power of vision and the muscular sense of weight. Kraepelin and Kurz by experiment determined that the acuteness of the special senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell was diminished by an ounce of alcohol, the power of vision being lost to one third of its extent and a similar effect being produced on the other special senses. Other investigators have reached like conclusions. There is no doubt but that alcohol, even in small quantities, renders the organs of sense less sensitive and therefore less accurate.
[Illustration: Table to show a comparison of chances of illness and death in drinkers and non-drinkers. Solid black, drinkers. (From German sources.)]
Effect of Alcohol on the Ability to Resist Disease.--Among certain classes of people the belief exists that alcohol in the form of brandy or some other drink or in patent medicines, malt tonics, and the like is of great importance in building up the body so as to resist disease or to cure it after disease has attacked it. Nothing is further from the truth. In experiments on a large number of animals, including dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, fowls, and pigeons, Laitenen, of the University of Helsingsfors, found that alcohol, without exception, made these animals more susceptible to disease than were the controls.
One of the most serious effects of alcohol is the lowered resistance of the body to disease. It has been proved that a much larger proportion of hard drinkers die from infectious or contagious diseases than from special diseased conditions due to the direct action of alcohol on the organs of the body. This lowered resistance is shown in increased liability to contract disease and increased severity of the disease. We have already alluded to the findings of insurance companies with reference to the length of life--the abstainers from alcohol have a much better chance of a longer life and much less likelihood of infection by disease germs.
Use of Alcohol in the Treatment of Disease.--In the London Temperance Hospital alcohol was prescribed seventy-five times in thirty-three years.
The death rate in this hospital has been lower than that of most general hospitals. Sir William Collins, after serving nineteen years as surgeon in this hospital, said:--
"In my experience, speaking as a surgeon, the use of alcohol is not essential for successful surgery.... At the London Temperance Hospital, where alcohol is very rarely prescribed, the mortality in amputation cases and in operation cases generally is remarkably low. Total abstainers are better subjects for operation, and recover more rapidly from accidents, than those who habitually take stimulants."
In a paper read at the International Congress on Tuberculosis, in New York, 1906, Dr. Crothers remarked that alcohol as a remedy or a preventive medicine in the treatment of tuberculosis is a most dangerous drug, and that all preparations of sirups containing spirits increase, rather than diminish, the disease.
Dr. Kellogg says: "The paralyzing influence of alcohol upon the white cells of the blood--a fact which is attested by all investigators--is alone sufficient to condemn the use of this drug in acute or chronic infections of any sort."
[Illustration: Effect of use of alcohol on memory.]
The Effect of Alcohol upon Intellectual Ability.--With regard to the supposed quickening of the mental processes Horsley and Sturge, in their recent book, _Alcohol and the Human Body_, say:
"Kraepelin found that the simple reaction period, by which is meant the time occupied in making a mere response to a signal, as, for instance, to the sudden appearance of a flag, was, after the ingestion of a small quantity of alcohol (1/4 to 1/2 ounce), slightly accelerated; that there was, in fact, a slight shortening of the time, as though the brain were enabled to operate more quickly than before. But he found that after a few minutes, in most cases, a slowing of mental action began, becoming more and more marked, and enduring as long as the alcohol was in active operation in the body, _i.e._ four to five hours.... Kraepelin found that it was only more or less automatic work, such as reading aloud, which was quickened by alcohol, though even this was rendered less trustworthy and accurate." Again: "Kraepelin had always shared the popular belief that a small quantity of alcohol (one to two teaspoonfuls) had an accelerating effect on the activity of his mind, enabling him to perform test operations, as the adding and subtracting and learning of figures more quickly. But when he came to measure with his instruments the exact period and time occupied, he found, to his astonishment, that he had accomplished these mental operations, not more, but less, quickly than before.... Numerous further experiments were carried out in order to test this matter, and these proved that _alcohol lengthens the time taken to perform complex mental processes_, while by a singular illusion the person experimented upon imagines that his psychical actions are rendered more rapid."
[Illustration: The effect of alcohol upon ability to do mental work.]
_Attention_--that is, the power of the mind to grasp and consider impressions obtained through the senses--is weakened by drink. The ability of the mind to associate or combine ideas, the faculty involved in sound _judgment_, showed that when the persons had taken the amounts of alcohol mentioned, the combinations of ideas or judgments expressed by them were confused, foggy, sentimental, and general. When the persons had taken no alcohol, their judgments were rational, specific, keen, showing closer observation.
"The words of Professor Helmholtz at the celebration of his seventieth birthday are very interesting in this connection.
He spoke of the ideas flashing up from the depths of the unknown soul, that lies at the foundation of every truly creative intellectual production, and closed his account of their origin with these words: 'The smallest quantity of an alcoholic beverage seemed to frighten these ideas away.'"--DR. G. SIMS WOODHEAD, Professor of Pathology, Cambridge University, England.
Professor Von Bunge (_Textbook of Physiological and Pathological Chemistry_) of Switzerland says that:
"The stimulating action which alcohol appears to exert on the brain functions is only a paralytic action. The cerebral functions which are first interfered with are _the power of clear judgment and reason_. No man ever became witty by aid of spirituous drinks. The lively gesticulations and useless exertions of intoxicated people are due to paralysis,--the restraining influences, which prevent a sober man from uselessly expending his strength, being removed."
The Drink Habit.--The harmful effects of alcohol (aside from the purely physiological effect upon the tissues and organs of the body) are most terribly seen in the formation of the alcohol habit. The first effect of drinking alcoholic liquors is that of exhilaration. After the feeling of exhilaration is gone, for this is a temporary state, the subject feels depressed and less able to work than before he took the drink. To overcome this feeling, he takes another drink. The result is that before long he finds a habit formed from which he cannot escape. With body and mind weakened, he attempts to break off the habit. But meanwhile his will, too, has suffered from overindulgence. He has become a victim of the drink habit!
"The capital argument against alcohol, that which must eventually condemn its use, is this, that _it takes away all the reserved control, the power of mastership, and therefore offends against the splendid pride in himself or herself, which is fundamental in every man or woman worth anything_."--DR. JOHN JOHNSON, quoting Walt Whitman.
Self-indulgence, be it in gratification of such a simple desire as that for candy or the more harmful indulgence in tobacco or alcoholic beverages, is dangerous--not only in its immediate effects on the tissues and organs, but in its more far-reaching effects on habit formation. Each one of us is a bundle of appetites. If we gratify appetites of the wrong kind, we are surely laying the foundation for the habit of excess. Self-denial is a good thing for each of us to practice at one time or another, if for no other purpose than to be ready to fight temptation when it comes.
The Economic Effect of Alcoholic Poisoning.--In the struggle for existence, it is evident that the man whose intellect is the quickest and keenest, whose judgment is most sound, is the man who is most likely to succeed. The paralyzing effect of alcohol upon the nerve centers must place the drinker at a disadvantage. In a hundred ways, the drinker sooner or later feels the handicap that the habit of drink has imposed upon him. Many corporations, notably several of our greatest railroads (the Pennsylvania and the New York Central Railroad among them), refuse to employ any but abstainers in positions of trust. Few persons know the number of railway accidents due to the uncertain eye of some engineer who mistook his signal, or the hazy inactivity of the brain of some train dispatcher who, because of drink, forgot to send the telegram that was to hold the train from wreck. In business and in the professions, the story is the same. The abstainer wins out over the drinking man.
Effect of Alcohol on Ability to do Work.--In _Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem_, Professor Hodge, formerly of Clark University, describes many of his own experiments showing the effect of alcohol on animals. He trained four selected puppies to recover a ball thrown across a gymnasium.
To two of the dogs he gave food mixed with doses of alcohol, while the others were fed normally. The ball was thrown 100 feet as rapidly as recovered. This was repeated 100 times each day for fourteen successive days. Out of 1400 times the dogs to which alcohol had been given brought back the ball only 478 times, while the others secured it 922 times.
Dr. Parkes experimented with two gangs of men, selected to be as nearly similar as possible, in mowing. He found that with one gang abstaining from alcoholic drinks and the other not, the abstaining gang could accomplish more. On transposing the gangs, the same results were repeatedly obtained.
Similar results were obtained by Professor Aschaffenburg of Heidelberg University, who found experimentally that men "were able to do 15 per cent less work after taking alcohol."
Recently many experiments along the same lines have been made. In typewriting, in typesetting, in bricklaying, or in the highest type of mental work the result is the same. The quality and quantity of work done on days when alcohol is taken is less than on days when no alcohol is taken.
The Relation of Alcohol to Efficiency.--We have already seen that work is neither so well done nor is as much accomplished by drinkers as by non-drinkers.
A Massachusetts shoe manufacturer told a recent writer on temperance that in one year his firm lost over $5000 in shoes spoiled by drinking men, and that he had himself traced these spoiled shoes to the workmen who, through their use of alcoholic liquors, had thus rendered themselves incapable.
This is a serious handicap to our modern factory system, and explains why so many factory towns and cities are strongly favoring a policy of "No license" in opposition to the saloons.