The First Tycoon_ The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt Part 12

New York Sun New York Sun NYW.

New York World New York World ProvJ Providence Journal Providence Journal PS.

Pitt field Sun Pitt field Sun RT.

Railway Times Railway Times RG.

Railroad Gazette Railroad Gazette SA.

Scientific American Scientific American SEP.

Saturday Evening Post Saturday Evening Post USMDR.

United States Magazine and Democratic Review United States Magazine and Democratic Review

PUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES.

Fowler William W. Fowler, William W. Fowler, Ten Years in Wall Street Ten Years in Wall Street (Hartford: Worthington, Dustin, & Co., 1870) (Hartford: Worthington, Dustin, & Co., 1870) Hone Allan Nevins, ed., Allan Nevins, ed., The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1936) (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1936) Manning (3, 4, or 7) William R. Manning, ed., William R. Manning, ed., Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 18311860 Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 18311860 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), vol. 3 (1934); vol. 4 (1934); vol. 7 (1936) (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), vol. 3 (1934); vol. 4 (1934); vol. 7 (1936) Medbery James K. Medbery, James K. Medbery, Men and Mysteries of Wall Street Men and Mysteries of Wall Street (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1870) (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1870) Smith Matthew Hale Smith, Matthew Hale Smith, Twenty Years Among the Bulls and Bears of Wall Street Twenty Years Among the Bulls and Bears of Wall Street (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1870) (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1870) Soule Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco The Annals of San Francisco (New York: D. Appleton, 1855) (New York: D. Appleton, 1855) Staten Island Church Tobias Alexander Wright, ed., Tobias Alexander Wright, ed., Collections of the New York Records, Genealogical and Biographical Society Collections of the New York Records, Genealogical and Biographical Society, vol. 4: Staten Island Church Records Staten Island Church Records (New York: n.p., 1909) (New York: n.p., 1909) Stonington Reports Annual Reports of the New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company, 1833 to 1874 Annual Reports of the New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company, 1833 to 1874 (Westerly, R.I.: 1874); copy in Library of Congress (Westerly, R.I.: 1874); copy in Library of Congress Strong (1, 2, 3, or 4) Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong The Diary of George Templeton Strong (New York: MacMillan, 1952), vol. 1: (New York: MacMillan, 1952), vol. 1: Young Man in New York, 18351849 Young Man in New York, 18351849, vol. 2: The Turbulent Fifties, 18501859 The Turbulent Fifties, 18501859, vol. 3: The Civil War, 18601865 The Civil War, 18601865, vol. 4: Post-War Years, 18651875 Post-War Years, 18651875

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John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., American National Biography American National Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) Baughman James P. Baughman, James P. Baughman, Charles Morgan and the Development of Charles Morgan and the Development of Southern Transportation Southern Transportation (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968) (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968) BHR.

Business History Review Business History Review Burns E. Bradford Burns, E. Bradford Burns, Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 17981858 Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 17981858 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991) (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991) Burrows & Wallace Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) Confidence Men Karen Halttunen, Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 18301870 Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 18301870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982) Croffut William A. Croffut, William A. Croffut, The Vanderbilts and the Story of their Fortune The Vanderbilts and the Story of their Fortune (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1886) (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1886) Folkman David I. Folkman Jr., David I. Folkman Jr., The Nicaragua Route The Nicaragua Route (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972) (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972) Foner Eric Foner, Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 18631877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) Gunn L. Ray Gunn, L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York, 18001860 The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York, 18001860 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988) (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988) Heyl (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) Erik Heyl, Erik Heyl, Early American Steamers Early American Steamers (Buffalo: n.p.), vol. 1 (1953); vol. 2 (1956); vol. 3 (1964); vol. 4 (1965); vol. 5 (1967); vol. 6 (1969) (Buffalo: n.p.), vol. 1 (1953); vol. 2 (1956); vol. 3 (1964); vol. 4 (1965); vol. 5 (1967); vol. 6 (1969) HAHR.

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Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic JModH Journal of Modern History Journal of Modern History Kemble John Haskell Kemble, John Haskell Kemble, The Panama Route, 18481869 The Panama Route, 18481869 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943) Klein Maury Klein, Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986) (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986) Lane Wheaton J. Lane, Wheaton J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt: An Epic of the Steam Age Commodore Vanderbilt: An Epic of the Steam Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942) McPherson James M. McPherson, James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) Morrison John H. Morrison, John H. Morrison, History of American Steam Navigation History of American Steam Navigation (New York: Stephen Daye Press, 1959, orig. pub. 1903) (New York: Stephen Daye Press, 1959, orig. pub. 1903) NYHis New York History New York History NYHSQ.

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William and Mary Quarterly William and Mary Quarterly Wood Gordon Wood, Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1993) (New York: Vintage, 1993)

INDIVIDUAL AND COMPANY NAMES.

AO.

Aaron Ogden Aaron Ogden AS.

Augustus Schell Augustus Schell ATC.

Accessory Transit Company Accessory Transit Company CFA.

Charles Francis Adams Jr. Charles Francis Adams Jr.

CM.

Charles Morgan Charles Morgan COH.

Charles O. Handy Charles O. Handy CtP Courtlandt Palmer Courtlandt Palmer CJV.

Cornelius J. Vanderbilt Cornelius J. Vanderbilt CKG.

Cornelius K. Garrison Cornelius K. Garrison CV.

Cornelius Vanderbilt, 17941877 Cornelius Vanderbilt, 17941877 DDT.

Daniel D. Tompkins Daniel D. Tompkins EC.

Erastus Corning Sr. Erastus Corning Sr.

EMS.

Edwin M. Stanton Edwin M. Stanton HFC.

Horace F. Clark Horace F. Clark HG.

Horace Greeley Horace Greeley HR.

Hudson River Railroad Company Hudson River Railroad Company HRR.

New York & Harlem Railroad Company New York & Harlem Railroad Company JB.

James Buchanan James Buchanan JHB.

James H. Banker James H. Banker JMC.

John M. Clayton John M. Clayton JLW.

Joseph L. White Joseph L. White JMD.

John M. Davidson John M. Davidson JRL.

John R. Livingston John R. Livingston JWR.

John W. Richmond John W. Richmond LS&MS.

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company NYC.

New York Central Railroad Company New York Central Railroad Company NYC&HR.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company TG.

Thomas Gibbons Thomas Gibbons WG.

William Gibbons William Gibbons WGM.

William Gibbs McNeill William Gibbs McNeill WDL.

William D. Lewis William D. Lewis WHV.

William H. Vanderbilt William H. Vanderbilt WLM.

William L. Marcy William L. Marcy WmC William Comstock William Comstock

PART ONE CAPTAIN.

One The Islander The Islander 1 NYT NYT, November 13, 1877. For reporting on the opening of the trial, see almost any New York newspaper starting on this date.2 Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569. I am including national, state, and private banks in calculating this figure, but I am leaving out savings banks. Even so, this figure somewhat exaggerates money stock, as it includes all coin and bullion, much of which was not in circulation. Note that the (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569. I am including national, state, and private banks in calculating this figure, but I am leaving out savings banks. Even so, this figure somewhat exaggerates money stock, as it includes all coin and bullion, much of which was not in circulation. Note that the New York Times New York Times, July 15, 2007, calculated that Vanderbilt was the second-wealthiest figure in American history by comparing his estate to the size of the national economy. Such estimates are questionable, due to the poor quality of economic statistics in the nineteenth century.3 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869.4 Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Packard's Monthly Packard's Monthly, March 1869.5 On the emergence of the term "business man," see Sven Beckert, On the emergence of the term "business man," see Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 2567. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 2567.6 Isaac Lea to Horatio King, September 26, 1859, SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Isaac Lea to Horatio King, September 26, 1859, SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; NYT NYT, February 9, 1859.7 See, for example, See, for example, NYH NYH, April 17, 1855.8 Lane, 410; Lane, 410; Staten Island Advance Staten Island Advance, June 29, 1907.9 Burrows & Wallace, 5089, 12235; Michael Kammen, Burrows & Wallace, 5089, 12235; Michael Kammen, Colonial New York: A History Colonial New York: A History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), 12860, 241; Oliver A. Rink, "Before the English (16091664)," in Milton M. Klein, ed., (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), 12860, 241; Oliver A. Rink, "Before the English (16091664)," in Milton M. Klein, ed., Empire State: A History of New York Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 213; Joyce D. Goodfriend, "Writing/Righting Dutch Colonial History," (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 213; Joyce D. Goodfriend, "Writing/Righting Dutch Colonial History," NYHis NYHis 80, no. 1 (January 1999): 528; Cathy Matson, 80, no. 1 (January 1999): 528; Cathy Matson, Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1998), 410; Richard Middleton, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1998), 410; Richard Middleton, Colonial America: A History, 16071760 Colonial America: A History, 16071760 (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992), 828; (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992), 828; NYH NYH, January 14, 1877.10 Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutchness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutchness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," NYHis 77 NYHis 77, no. 3 (July 1996): 273300; Peter O. Wacker, "The Dutch Culture Area in the Northeast, 16091800," New Jersey History New Jersey History 104, nos. 12 (spring and summer 1986): 122; Martin Bruegel, 104, nos. 12 (spring and summer 1986): 122; Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 38; Goodfriend, 26; Rink, 61, 1057. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 38; Goodfriend, 26; Rink, 61, 1057.11 Fabend; Wacker; Goodfriend, 26; Shane White, Fabend; Wacker; Goodfriend, 26; Shane White, Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 17701810 Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 17701810 (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 427, 18990. (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 427, 18990.12 Fabend; Bruegel, 38; Rink, 61, 1057; White, 427, 18990; Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood (17761825)," in Klein, 229305, esp. 248; Goodfriend, 26; Rocellus S. Guernsey, Fabend; Bruegel, 38; Rink, 61, 1057; White, 427, 18990; Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood (17761825)," in Klein, 229305, esp. 248; Goodfriend, 26; Rocellus S. Guernsey, New York City and Vicinity During the War of 181215 New York City and Vicinity During the War of 181215 (New York: C. L. Woodward, 188995), 1:4750; First Census of the United States, Richmond County, New York; Ira K. Morris, (New York: C. L. Woodward, 188995), 1:4750; First Census of the United States, Richmond County, New York; Ira K. Morris, Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island, New York Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island, New York, vol. 2 (Staten Island: Ira Morris, 1900), 46; Burrows & Wallace, 5189. As Allan Kulikoff notes, The Origins of American Capitalism The Origins of American Capitalism (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 303, it is important not to go too far in describing American agriculture as "subsistence farming." Early on, Northern farmers took part in both local and extended market exchanges. James A. Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 303, it is important not to go too far in describing American agriculture as "subsistence farming." Early on, Northern farmers took part in both local and extended market exchanges. James A. Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 18 (spring 1998): 289304, observes, "Clearly the United States economy during the early republic was primarily a market-based, price-driven system. But... that economy also included elements of an older barter economy that was imbedded in the social structure of many communities." The Dutch-English contrast in market orientation must be considered relative, not absolute. 18 (spring 1998): 289304, observes, "Clearly the United States economy during the early republic was primarily a market-based, price-driven system. But... that economy also included elements of an older barter economy that was imbedded in the social structure of many communities." The Dutch-English contrast in market orientation must be considered relative, not absolute.13 Numerous informal periauger ferries ran from Staten Island to New York (and often to New Jersey). CVs appears to have started in about 1800, competing with the Van Duzer family which began to run boats across the harbor as early as 1788; Ira K. Morris, Numerous informal periauger ferries ran from Staten Island to New York (and often to New Jersey). CVs appears to have started in about 1800, competing with the Van Duzer family which began to run boats across the harbor as early as 1788; Ira K. Morris, Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island (New York: Memorial Publishing, 1898), 1:3915. (New York: Memorial Publishing, 1898), 1:3915. Periauger Periauger was pronounced as well as spelled in various ways; the most common alternate was pettiauger (used in the New York Custom House registration books). The name appears to be related to "periagua" or "pirogue," a sea going canoe common to Central and South America, first encountered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. See Peter Kemp, ed., was pronounced as well as spelled in various ways; the most common alternate was pettiauger (used in the New York Custom House registration books). The name appears to be related to "periagua" or "pirogue," a sea going canoe common to Central and South America, first encountered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. See Peter Kemp, ed., The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 651. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 651.14 The earliest published stories about CVs family and early life appeared in the 1850s. See The earliest published stories about CVs family and early life appeared in the 1850s. See SA SA, June 18, 1853; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; James Parton, Famous Americans of Recent Times Famous Americans of Recent Times (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 37790; Lane, 913; Croffut, 1017 (including the quote about Phebe Hand Vanderbilt); Bruegel, 54. Regarding Phebe's apparent career as a moneylender, see (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 37790; Lane, 913; Croffut, 1017 (including the quote about Phebe Hand Vanderbilt); Bruegel, 54. Regarding Phebe's apparent career as a moneylender, see Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al. April 17, 1844, file D-CH 177-V, Court of Chancery, NYCC. The best evidence that Phebe did indeed store her money in the clock is a reference to it in a poem by CVs son-in-law James M. Cross in 1863; see Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), 27, copy at Duke. (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), 27, copy at Duke.15 Bruegel, 545; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Bruegel, 545; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5612. (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5612.16 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 230. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 230.17 First Census of the United States; Taylor, 68; Walter Licht, First Census of the United States; Taylor, 68; Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), xiii-xiv. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), xiii-xiv.18 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' attitudes toward commerce, see 43976. John Lauritz Larson, Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' attitudes toward commerce, see 43976. John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37, stresses that the founding generation of the republic saw the need for transportation improvements. The trade ratios are imprecise at best, and reflect registered tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade; see Allan R. Pred, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37, stresses that the founding generation of the republic saw the need for transportation improvements. The trade ratios are imprecise at best, and reflect registered tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade; see Allan R. Pred, Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 7, 1049; Doug lass C. North, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 7, 1049; Doug lass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 2435, 43, 250; Elisha P. Douglass, (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 2435, 43, 250; Elisha P. Douglass, The Coming of Age of American Business: Three Centuries of Enterprise, 16001900 The Coming of Age of American Business: Three Centuries of Enterprise, 16001900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 39; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 39; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 121; Diane Lindstrom, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 121; Diane Lindstrom, Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 318; Kulikoff, 303; Countryman, 314. For key arguments in the debate over the emergence of capitalism in the American countryside, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 318; Kulikoff, 303; Countryman, 314. For key arguments in the debate over the emergence of capitalism in the American countryside, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 12044; Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," 289304; Joyce Appleby "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118; and Appleby, 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118; and Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 125, 5690, 25066. Appleby in particular argues forcefully and well that Americans embraced the market as a force of liberation. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 125, 5690, 25066. Appleby in particular argues forcefully and well that Americans embraced the market as a force of liberation.19 Taylor, 68; Licht, xiii-xiv; Edmund M. Blunt, Taylor, 68; Licht, xiii-xiv; Edmund M. Blunt, Blunt's Stranger's Guide to the City of New-York Blunt's Stranger's Guide to the City of New-York (New York: Edmund M. Blunt, 1817), 43; Guernsey, 1:133; John Lambert, (New York: Edmund M. Blunt, 1817), 43; Guernsey, 1:133; John Lambert, Travels Through Canada, and the United States of North America, in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 Travels Through Canada, and the United States of North America, in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 (London: C. Cradock, 1814), 2:55; David H. Wallace, ed., "'From the Windows of the Mail Coach': A Scotsman Looks at New York State in 1811," (London: C. Cradock, 1814), 2:55; David H. Wallace, ed., "'From the Windows of the Mail Coach': A Scotsman Looks at New York State in 1811," NYHSQ NYHSQ 40, no. 3 (July 1956): 26496. 40, no. 3 (July 1956): 26496.20 Lambert, 2:49. Lambert, 2:49.21 Albion, 19, 30, 2201; Lambert, 2:634; Bayrd Still, "New York City in 1824: A Newly Discovered Description," Albion, 19, 30, 2201; Lambert, 2:634; Bayrd Still, "New York City in 1824: A Newly Discovered Description," NYHSQ NYHSQ 46, no. 2 (April 1962): 13770. 46, no. 2 (April 1962): 13770.22 Diary of John Adams, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., Diary of John Adams, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., Founding Fathers Founding Fathers (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999), 42; Wallace, "From the Windows." (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999), 42; Wallace, "From the Windows."23 Guernsey, 329, 478; Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 22730; Lambert, 2:56, 63; Burrows & Wallace, 35960, 3714; Guernsey, 329, 478; Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 22730; Lambert, 2:56, 63; Burrows & Wallace, 35960, 3714; Blunt's Stranger's Guide Blunt's Stranger's Guide, 3441, 43, 45; Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001), 1415; Sean Wilentz, (New York: Free Press, 2001), 1415; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 17881850 Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 17881850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 25; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 25; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," NYHSQ NYHSQ 43, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. 43, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114.24 Taylor, 314; Ratner et al., 2123; Robertson, 824; Nettels, 292304; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," Taylor, 314; Ratner et al., 2123; Robertson, 824; Nettels, 292304; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," JEH JEH 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Burrows & Wallace, 338; Doug lass, 739; John Denis Haeger, 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Burrows & Wallace, 338; Doug lass, 739; John Denis Haeger, John Jacob Astor: Business and Finance in the Early Republic John Jacob Astor: Business and Finance in the Early Republic (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 626; Geoffrey Gilbert, "Maritime Enterprise in the New Republic: Investment in Baltimore Shipping, 17891793," (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 626; Geoffrey Gilbert, "Maritime Enterprise in the New Republic: Investment in Baltimore Shipping, 17891793," BHR BHR 58, no. 1 (spring 1984): 1429; Janet A. Riesman, "Republican Revisions: Political Economy in New York after the Panic of 1819," 144, and Gregory S. Hunter, "The Manhattan Company: Managing a Multi-Unit Corporation in New York, 17991842," 12446, in William Pencack and Conrad Edick Wright, eds., 58, no. 1 (spring 1984): 1429; Janet A. Riesman, "Republican Revisions: Political Economy in New York after the Panic of 1819," 144, and Gregory S. Hunter, "The Manhattan Company: Managing a Multi-Unit Corporation in New York, 17991842," 12446, in William Pencack and Conrad Edick Wright, eds., New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989); Wilentz, 2335. Stuart M. Blumin notes the highly personal nature of the eighteenth-century urban economy in (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989); Wilentz, 2335. Stuart M. Blumin notes the highly personal nature of the eighteenth-century urban economy in The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 26. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 26.25 Herman A. Krooss, ed., Herman A. Krooss, ed., A Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States A Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States (New York: Chelsea House, 1965), 90, 1059. (New York: Chelsea House, 1965), 90, 1059.26 Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124; Licht, xvxvii; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124; Licht, xvxvii; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1057; Nathan Miller, (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1057; Nathan Miller, The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Canal Period, 17921838 The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Canal Period, 17921838 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 67; Curtis P. Nettels, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 67; Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 17751815 The Emergence of a National Economy, 17751815 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962), 292; Kulikoff, 303; W. T. Newlyn and R. P. Bootle, (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962), 292; Kulikoff, 303; W. T. Newlyn and R. P. Bootle, The Theory of Money The Theory of Money (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 118; Leslie V. Brock, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 118; Leslie V. Brock, The Currency of the American Colonies, 17001764: A Study in Colonial Finance and Imperial Relations The Currency of the American Colonies, 17001764: A Study in Colonial Finance and Imperial Relations (New York: Arno Press, 1975), 237, 756; Jack Weatherford, (New York: Arno Press, 1975), 237, 756; Jack Weatherford, The History of Money: From Sandstone to Cyberspace The History of Money: From Sandstone to Cyberspace (New York: Crown, 1997), 11236; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, (New York: Crown, 1997), 11236; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 17881800 The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 17881800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 2356; Ross M. Robertson, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 2356; Ross M. Robertson, History of the American Economy History of the American Economy, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964), 82, 1278, 144; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 323. Lindstrom, 1, argues that household manufacturing peaked in 1815. Margaret G. Myers discusses bills of exchange and the personal nature of credit in (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 323. Lindstrom, 1, argues that household manufacturing peaked in 1815. Margaret G. Myers discusses bills of exchange and the personal nature of credit in The New York Money Market The New York Money Market, vol. 1: Origins and Development Origins and Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 4657. Robert E. Wright, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 4657. Robert E. Wright, The Wealth of Nations Rediscovered: Integration and Expansion in American Financial Markets, 17801850 The Wealth of Nations Rediscovered: Integration and Expansion in American Financial Markets, 17801850 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 31821, discusses the inherent problems with bills of exchange. Edwin J. Perkins, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 31821, discusses the inherent problems with bills of exchange. Edwin J. Perkins, American Public Finance and Financial Services, 17001815 American Public Finance and Financial Services, 17001815 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 26173, discusses the transition from informal relationships to formal institutions in credit and finance, and the lack of interstate institutions. Bruegel offers an excellent discussion of book debt and personal relationships in trade, 423. On the shilling, Spanish money, and money of account in general, see (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 26173, discusses the transition from informal relationships to formal institutions in credit and finance, and the lack of interstate institutions. Bruegel offers an excellent discussion of book debt and personal relationships in trade, 423. On the shilling, Spanish money, and money of account in general, see MM MM, April 1852. The New York County Clerk's office abounds with lawsuits over unpaid promissory notes; see, for example, Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen, March 20, 1848, file 1848951A, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.27 Fritz Redlich and Webster M. Christman, "Early American Checks and an Example of Their Use," Fritz Redlich and Webster M. Christman, "Early American Checks and an Example of Their Use," BHR BHR 41, no. 3 (autumn 1967): 285302; Elkins and McKitrick, 11461; Burrows & Wallace, 3102; Myers, 1:817; Miller, 789. It should be stressed that Hamilton remained immersed in mercantilistic thinking; he sought to harness the merchant economy to the new federal government to enhance national power, and failed in his attempt to create a manufacturing sector through federal direction; see Wood, 2624. 41, no. 3 (autumn 1967): 285302; Elkins and McKitrick, 11461; Burrows & Wallace, 3102; Myers, 1:817; Miller, 789. It should be stressed that Hamilton remained immersed in mercantilistic thinking; he sought to harness the merchant economy to the new federal government to enhance national power, and failed in his attempt to create a manufacturing sector through federal direction; see Wood, 2624.28 Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," AHR AHR 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 50, no. 1 (January 1993): 5184; Shaw Livermore, "Advent of Corporations in New York," NYHis NYHis 16, no. 3 (July 1935): 24598; Oscar Handlin and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the American Business Corporation," 16, no. 3 (July 1935): 24598; Oscar Handlin and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the American Business Corporation," JEH JEH 5, no. 1 (May 1945): 123; Morton J. Horwitz, 5, no. 1 (May 1945): 123; Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 11011; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 11011; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Ronald E. Seavoy, "Laws to Encourage Manufacturing: New York Policy and the 1811 General Incorporation Statute," (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Ronald E. Seavoy, "Laws to Encourage Manufacturing: New York Policy and the 1811 General Incorporation Statute," BHR BHR 46, no. 1 (spring 1972): 8595; Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," 46, no. 1 (spring 1972): 8595; Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," BHR BHR 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Nettels, 28994; Douglass, 46; Bray Hammond, 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Nettels, 28994; Douglass, 46; Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1467; James Willard Hurst, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1467; James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 1332. On the centrality of the financial sector, see especially Perkins and Wright, (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 1332. On the centrality of the financial sector, see especially Perkins and Wright, Wealth of Nations Wealth of Nations, who argue with great clarity that a financial revolution was central to the other revolutions in the American economy, including that in transportation.29 Parton, 378; Parton, 378; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; Lane, 1011. Regarding CV's strength and endurance, see the reminiscences of his assistant, LW Dictation. On New York City's role as the center of a large hinterland of market farming, see Countryman, 314.30 For CVs early writing, see the following letters from CV to TG: February 2, 1819; February 24, 1819; January 5, 1820; November 16, 1821; March 1, 1822; November 4, 1822; all in GP; see also CV to JWR, n.d., RWG. A Staten Island historian speculated that CV "got his three months' education" at a Moravian academy; For CVs early writing, see the following letters from CV to TG: February 2, 1819; February 24, 1819; January 5, 1820; November 16, 1821; March 1, 1822; November 4, 1822; all in GP; see also CV to JWR, n.d., RWG. A Staten Island historian speculated that CV "got his three months' education" at a Moravian academy; Staten Island Advance Staten Island Advance, June 29, 1907.31 Lane, ion. Lane, ion.32 Lane, 1114; Parton, 378; Lane, 1114; Parton, 378; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865.33 NYTr NYTr, November 10, 1869; Paul A. Gilje, "On the Waterfront: Workers in New York City in the Early Republic, 18001850," NYHis NYHis 77, no. 4 (October 1996): 395426. 77, no. 4 (October 1996): 395426.34 Lambert, 2:64. Lambert, 2:64.35 This anecdote was often repeated in various forms in biographical material (see, for example, Croffut, 17). This version is taken from a brief memorandum of a conversation with This anecdote was often repeated in various forms in biographical material (see, for example, Croffut, 17). This version is taken from a brief memorandum of a conversation with CV CV, written by an unknown party, in the VFP The memorandum reflects some confusion, as do most anecdotes (it refers to CV being sixteen in 1812), but it appears to be the authentic record of a story told by CV himself.36 V. S. Naipaul, V. S. Naipaul, The Enigma of Arrival The Enigma of Arrival (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 77. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 77.37 VFP; Croffut, 17; Lane, 13. VFP; Croffut, 17; Lane, 13.38 Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865.39 SA SA, June 18, 1853.40 Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; SA SA, June 18, 1853.41 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 587. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 587.42 HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; John Komlos, "The Height and Weight of West Point Cadets: Dietary Change in Antebellum America," JEH JEH 47, no. 4 (December 1987): 897927. CV was described as running a "packet" ferry in 47, no. 4 (December 1987): 897927. CV was described as running a "packet" ferry in EP EP, February 4, 1818.43 HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; Parton, 37680; Lane, 1517; Croffut, 1921; Blunt's Stranger's Guide Blunt's Stranger's Guide, 207n, 223; Guernsey, 1:53. On CVs temper, see NYTr NYTr, March 27, 1878; NYW NYW, November 13, 14, 1877.44 Burrows & Wallace, 40923; Edward L. Beach, Burrows & Wallace, 40923; Edward L. Beach, The United States Navy: A 200-Year History The United States Navy: A 200-Year History (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 5171. (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 5171.45 Guernsey, 1:116, 1203, 15960, 218, 31722; Burrows & Wallace, 4095; W. E. Apgar, "New York's Contribution to the War Effort of 1812," Guernsey, 1:116, 1203, 15960, 218, 31722; Burrows & Wallace, 4095; W. E. Apgar, "New York's Contribution to the War Effort of 1812," New-York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin New-York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin 29, no. 4, 20312. 29, no. 4, 20312.46 Guernsey, 2:3012; Guernsey, 2:3012; MM MM, January 1865; Parton, 380; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; EP EP, September 13, 1813.47 Staten Island Church Records Staten Island Church Records, 106; Parton, 381; Lane, 203.48 Burrows & Wallace, 4278; George W. Cullum, Burrows & Wallace, 4278; George W. Cullum, Campaigns of the War of 181215 Against Great Britain Campaigns of the War of 181215 Against Great Britain (New York: James Miller, 1879), 1747. (New York: James Miller, 1879), 1747.49 Parton, 3812; Lane, 1819; Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Parton, 3812; Lane, 1819; Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family (Hendersonville, N.C.: privately printed, 1989), 22; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," (Hendersonville, N.C.: privately printed, 1989), 22; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," NYHSQ NYHSQ 63, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. Many boatmen were black; see the testimony of Joseph Bonnington, July 1, 1820, GP, and "Thomas Gibbons against Isaac Morse," 63, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. Many boatmen were black; see the testimony of Joseph Bonnington, July 1, 1820, GP, and "Thomas Gibbons against Isaac Morse," Cases of the Court of Errors of the State of New Jersey Cases of the Court of Errors of the State of New Jersey (November Term, 1821), 25371 (copy in GP), a lawsuit involving a slave who escaped with the aid of a free black ferry captain in 1818. (November Term, 1821), 25371 (copy in GP), a lawsuit involving a slave who escaped with the aid of a free black ferry captain in 1818.50 New York City Census, First Ward, 1816, NYMA. New York City Census, First Ward, 1816, NYMA.51 Frances Trollope, Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 36970. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 36970.52 Wilentz, 2360; Blumin, 2065, quotes on 26, 323, 64; Lambert, 2:90, 100; Albion, 23559. On the new assertiveness of the artisans in the Revolution, see especially Edward Countryman, Wilentz, 2360; Blumin, 2065, quotes on 26, 323, 64; Lambert, 2:90, 100; Albion, 23559. On the new assertiveness of the artisans in the Revolution, see especially Edward Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981).53 Pred; Perkins, 2713, 35062; Wright, Pred; Perkins, 2713, 35062; Wright, Wealth of Nations Wealth of Nations, 1825; Albion, 23559; Guernsey, 2:51214; Ross M. Robertson, History of the American Economy History of the American Economy, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964), 824. The discussion of promissory notes reflects the author's work in contemporary collections; see, for example, almost any lawsuit from this period in the Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; TG to George Johnston, February 2, 1810 ("In money transactions in the city I have always had assurances that my paper would pass current"), and TG to David B. Ogden, June 1, 1816, GP.54 Guernsey, 2:4589, 48394; Wilentz, 23. Guernsey, 2:4589, 48394; Wilentz, 23.55 Wilentz, 23; Albion, 915. Wilentz, 23; Albion, 915.56 Lane, 225; Croffut, 26; Wilentz, 35; Morrison, 169; Lane, 225; Croffut, 26; Wilentz, 35; Morrison, 169; EP EP, November 20, 1812; NYH NYH, January 5, 14, 1877; NYW NYW, January 5, 1877; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. The cost estimate of a boat is based on the sale of a fully equipped twenty-seven-ton periauger for $750 to TG, John C. Hatfield to TG, July 17, 1817, GP On the Chesapeake oyster schooners, and the role of Northern ships in the trade, see Geoffrey M. Footner, Tidewater Triumph: The Development and Worldwide Success of the Chesapeake Bay Pilot Schooner Tidewater Triumph: The Development and Worldwide Success of the Chesapeake Bay Pilot Schooner (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1998), 21325. The records of the New York Custom House, now with the National Archives, remain fragmentary at best, and the writings of earlier historians suggest that some have been lost. Morrison writes that the (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1998), 21325. The records of the New York Custom House, now with the National Archives, remain fragmentary at best, and the writings of earlier historians suggest that some have been lost. Morrison writes that the Dread Dread was the first vessel registered under CVs name, but I could not find that enrollment record. On later enrollments of the was the first vessel registered under CVs name, but I could not find that enrollment record. On later enrollments of the General Wolcott General Wolcott and the and the Dread Dread, see Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, and Enrollment Number 21, February 26, 1821, vol. 12148, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA. The General Wolcott General Wolcott entry notes that it was "rebuilt from an open boat," indicating CVs longer-range ambitions. For a reference to another of CVs periaugers, the entry notes that it was "rebuilt from an open boat," indicating CVs longer-range ambitions. For a reference to another of CVs periaugers, the Thorn Thorn, as a schooner, see EP EP, January 8, 1821.57 John De Forest and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Daniel Morgan John De Forest and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Daniel Morgan, April 5, 1817, file 1817-#337, Court of Common Pleas, and Cornelius Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Phineas Carman and Cornelius P. Wyckoff Cornelius Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Phineas Carman and Cornelius P. Wyckoff, May 26, 1817, file 1817-#1261, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. For background on the Mayor's Court, see Richard B. Morris, "The New York City's Mayor's Court," in Leo Hershkowitz and Milton M. Klein, eds., Courts and Law in Early New York: Selected Essays Courts and Law in Early New York: Selected Essays (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 1929. (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 1929.58 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' attitudes toward commerce, see 43976. On the impact of the War of 1812 and the growth in banks, see Murray N. Rothbard, Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' attitudes toward commerce, see 43976. On the impact of the War of 1812 and the growth in banks, see Murray N. Rothbard, The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 119. Janet A. Riesman discusses the intertwining of banking and American attitudes toward commerce and credit in "Republican Revisions," 144. Unquestionably the end of the war provided a boon to economic growth (see Albion and Taylor), but I agree with Daniel Walker Howe, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 119. Janet A. Riesman discusses the intertwining of banking and American attitudes toward commerce and credit in "Republican Revisions," 144. Unquestionably the end of the war provided a boon to economic growth (see Albion and Taylor), but I agree with Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5, in disagreeing with the "market revolution" thesis popularized by Charles Sellers, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5, in disagreeing with the "market revolution" thesis popularized by Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For more arguments in the enormous debate over the emergence of capitalism, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For more arguments in the enormous debate over the emergence of capitalism, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 12044; Henretta, 289304; Appleby, "Vexed Story," 118; and Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 125, 5690, 25066.59 Rochefoucauldt-Liancourt, 440; Appleby, "Vexed Story;" Appleby, Rochefoucauldt-Liancourt, 440; Appleby, "Vexed Story;" Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 5591; Kulikoff, "Transition;" Lambert, 2:267, 33. On the trip by sloop from New York to Albany, see Hone, 905; Lambert, 2:419; Taylor, 1531.60 Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124. Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124.61 For a fine survey of the issues of westward migration and transportation, see Howe, 21122. For a fine survey of the issues of westward migration and transportation, see Howe, 21122.62 For a splendid view of Broadway in 1819, clearly depicting the fashions of the day, see Stokes, vol. 3, plate 85. For a splendid view of Broadway in 1819, clearly depicting the fashions of the day, see Stokes, vol. 3, plate 85.63 Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA. Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA.64 Lane, 2225; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. Elizabethtown is now known as Elizabeth. It has often been said that CV himself renamed the Lane, 2225; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. Elizabethtown is now known as Elizabeth. It has often been said that CV himself renamed the Stoudinger Stoudinger the the Mouse Mouse, but it was advertised as the Mouse Mouse before CV took command; see before CV took command; see NBF NBF, November 13, 1817. Lane and Croffut depict CV on New Year's Eve pondering the growing importance of steam, then making a calculated decision to learn about it by working for TG TG's letter to Johnston, however, demonstrates the fortuitous nature of his hiring of CV as well as the fact that it took place more than a month before year's end.

Two The Duelist The Duelist 1 TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP. TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP.2 CV quoted in CV quoted in Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117, 16.3 TG to Thomas Heyward Gibbons, September 15, 1786, TG to Thomas Heyward Gibbons, September 15, 1786, Georgia Gazette Georgia Gazette, September 14, 21, 1786, TG to George Johnston, February 2, 1810, George Johnston to TG, May 22, 1812, Petition of James Field to the Honorable George Walters, 1783, WG to TG, January 23, 1785, TG to WG, January 27, 1785, Memorandum by WG, March 15, 1848, GP. See also Isaac Woodruff to TG, July 20, 1817, Isaac Woodruff Papers, NYHS. In 1819, TG was described as a man of "immense wealth" in AO v. TG AO v. TG, Supreme Court of Judicature of the State of New Jersey (February Term, 1819), 2 South. 5, 61236, 100515.4 Thomas Gamble, Thomas Gamble, Savannah Duels and Duellists, 17331877 Savannah Duels and Duellists, 17331877 (Savannah: Review Publishing & Printing, 1923), 414, 578; Carol S. Ebel, "Thomas Gibbons," (Savannah: Review Publishing & Printing, 1923), 414, 578; Carol S. Ebel, "Thomas Gibbons," ANB; ANB; see also George R. Lamplugh, see also George R. Lamplugh, Politics on the Periphery: Factions and Parties in Georgia, 17831806 Politics on the Periphery: Factions and Parties in Georgia, 17831806 (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1986). (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1986).5 For details on TG'S many holdings in New Jersey and Georgia, see a copy of TG'S will, Thomas Gibbons Papers, NYHS. TG described his move as a matter of climate and health; TG to Crawford Davison, June 1, 1818, GP. Various correspondence in the GP adumbrate the story of his illegitimate child, which he attempted to deny, against the advice of some of New York's leading attorneys. On New York's emerging role as creditor to Southern planters, see Philip S. Foner, For details on TG'S many holdings in New Jersey and Georgia, see a copy of TG'S will, Thomas Gibbons Papers, NYHS. TG described his move as a matter of climate and health; TG to Crawford Davison, June 1, 1818, GP. Various correspondence in the GP adumbrate the story of his illegitimate child, which he attempted to deny, against the advice of some of New York's leading attorneys. On New York's emerging role as creditor to Southern planters, see Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 510; Albion, 95121. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 510; Albion, 95121.6 Joanne B. Freeman, Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001); Nancy Isenberg; (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001); Nancy Isenberg; Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York: Viking, 2007), 255404. See also Saul Cornell, (New York: Viking, 2007), 255404. See also Saul Cornell, The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 17881828 The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 17881828 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).7 Bernard Bailyn, Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, enlarged ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 302; Frederic Cople Jaher, The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 3, and, for an insightful discussion of the New York patricians before the Civil War, see 160250. See also Wood. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 3, and, for an insightful discussion of the New York patricians before the Civil War, see 160250. See also Wood.8 Wood, 2545, 26970, 299300; Martin Bruegel, Wood, 2545, 26970, 299300; Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 156, 368, 206; Stuart M. Blumin, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 156, 368, 206; Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 645; John Lauritz Larson, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 645; John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 910. See also Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood," in Milton M. Klein, ed., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 910. See also Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood," in Milton M. Klein, ed., The Empire State: A History of New York The Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 24256, 2648, 2957; Dixon Ryan Fox, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 24256, 2648, 2957; Dixon Ryan Fox, The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1919), 5865. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1919), 5865.9 Countryman, "From Revolution," 24268; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Countryman, "From Revolution," 24268; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5878; Blumin, 5864; Wood, 27186. Particularly insightful is Gunn, esp. 70, 803. As Gunn writes, 83, New York before the end of the War of 1812 remained "a society in which public and private roles were virtually indistinguishable." An amusing illustration of the Jeffersonian view of elite rule in the election of 1800 can be found in Eric Homberger, (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5878; Blumin, 5864; Wood, 27186. Particularly insightful is Gunn, esp. 70, 803. As Gunn writes, 83, New York before the end of the War of 1812 remained "a society in which public and private roles were virtually indistinguishable." An amusing illustration of the Jeffersonian view of elite rule in the election of 1800 can be found in Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 37. See also Edward Countryman's (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 37. See also Edward Countryman's A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), which analyzes the radicalism of the Revolution and the conservative reaction. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), which analyzes the radicalism of the Revolution and the conservative reaction.10 Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Edward Countryman, Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Edward Countryman, The American Revolution The American Revolution (New York: Hill & Wang, 1985), 2245; Joyce Appleby, (New York: Hill & Wang, 1985), 2245; Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984), 5, 145, 202, 4650, 545, 88. (New York: New York University Press, 1984), 5, 145, 202, 4650, 545, 88.11 On Livingston's life, see especially Cynthia Owen Philip, On Livingston's life, see especially Cynthia Owen Philip, Robert Fulton: A Biography Robert Fulton: A Biography (New York: Franklin Watts, 1985); Cynthia A. Kierner, (New York: Franklin Watts, 1985); Cynthia A. Kierner, Traders and Gentlefolk: The Livingstons of New York, 16751790 Traders and Gentlefolk: The Livingstons of New York, 16751790 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); George Dangerfield, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); George Dangerfield, Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, 17461813 Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, 17461813 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960); (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960); EP EP, February 26, 1802. Jaher, 16096, discusses the intermingling of proprietary with mercantile wealth and the legal profession. Albion, 23059, discusses the "merchant princes," noting the relative decline of the old families after 1815. I do not mean to suggest that British gentry or nobility did not engage in trade; I am specifically referring to the image in fiction. Washington quoted in Larson, 9.12 Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Countryman, Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Countryman, American Revolution, 22 American Revolution, 2245; Appleby, 5, 4655, 88. Gunn, 70, notes, "New York politics [had] a reputation for personalism and corruption unsurpassed in any other state." See also pages 122, 99143. Appleby has elaborated on the rising opposition to mercantilism in other works, including "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Appleby, 5, 4655, 88. Gunn, 70, notes, "New York politics [had] a reputation for personalism and corruption unsurpassed in any other state." See also pages 122, 99143. Appleby has elaborated on the rising opposition to mercantilism in other works, including "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118, and 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118, and Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000). See also Bray Hammond, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000). See also Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1457. The idea that the rise of a commercial society joined hands with political radicalism to undermine the culture of deference is central to Wood's thesis, 243347. See also Kierner, 20122, 2368; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1457. The idea that the rise of a commercial society joined hands with political radicalism to undermine the culture of deference is central to Wood's thesis, 243347. See also Kierner, 20122, 2368; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 1216; Charles W. McCurdy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 1216; Charles W. McCurdy The Anti-Rent Era in New York Law and Politics, 18391865 The Anti-Rent Era in New York Law and Politics, 18391865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 24; David Hackett Fischer, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 24; David Hackett Fischer, The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), and Fox's much older, often challenged, but still useful (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), and Fox's much older, often challenged, but still useful Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York. The most important discussion of the changing law regarding monopolies and government franchises is Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), xiixv, 11030. Also of interest is Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), xiixv, 11030. Also of interest is Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 50, no. 1 (January 1993): 5184. As she notes, Adam Smith criticized corporations as vehicles of mercantilist monopoly; see, for example, book 1, chap. X, part II of The Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations. On monopolies in American tradition, see Herbert Hovenkamp, "Technology, Politics, and Regulated Monopoly: An American Historical Perspective," Texas Law Review Texas Law Review 62, no. 7 (April 1984): 12631312; Thomas P. Campbell Jr., "Chancellor Kent, Chief Justice Marshall, and the Steamboat Case," 62, no. 7 (April 1984): 12631312; Thomas P. Campbell Jr., "Chancellor Kent, Chief Justice Marshall, and the Steamboat Case," Syracuse Law Review Syracuse Law Review 25 (1974): 497534; W. Howard Mann, "The Marshall Court: Nationalization of Private Rights and Personal Liberty from the Authority of the Commerce Clause," 25 (1974): 497534; W. Howard Mann, "The Marshall Court: Nationalization of Private Rights and Personal Liberty from the Authority of the Commerce Clause," Indiana Law Journal Indiana Law Journal 38, no. 2 (winter 1963): 117238; Albert S. Abel, "Commerce Regulation Before 38, no. 2 (winter 1963): 117238; Albert S. Abel, "Commerce Regulation Before Gibbons v. Ogden: Gibbons v. Ogden: Interstate Transportation Enterprise," Interstate Transportation Enterprise," Mississippi Law Journal Mississippi Law Journal 18, no. 3 (May 1947): 33580. 18, no. 3 (May 1947): 33580.13 Larson discusses at length "a kind of state-level mercantilism" that drove the internal-improvement projects of the "monied gentry" (quote on 25). "New York's heritage of mercantilist ideology" is stressed by Nathan Miller, Larson discusses at length "a kind of state-level mercantilism" that drove the internal-improvement projects of the "monied gentry" (quote on 25). "New York's heritage of mercantilist ideology" is stressed by Nathan Miller, The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Canal Period, 17921838 The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Canal Period, 17921838 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 1019. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 1019.14 The ensuing discussion of Livingston, Fulton, and the steamboat monopoly owes much to Maurice G. Baxter, The ensuing discussion of Livingston, Fulton, and the steamboat monopoly owes much to Maurice G. Baxter, The Steamboat Monopoly: The Steamboat Monopoly: Gibbons v. Ogden, Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824 1824 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 325; Philip, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 325; Philip, Robert Fulton; Robert Fulton; and Dangerfield, and Dangerfield, Chancellor Robert R. Livingston Chancellor Robert R. Livingston. For Livingston's own defense of a monopoly as a just reward for his public-spirited investment, see Dangerfield, 414. New York State first granted a steamboat monopoly to John Fitch, who committed suicide in 1798. I am grateful to Maury Klein for pointing out that Fitch, among others, was unaware of Watts's work on the steam engine.15 Baxter, 325; Philip, 11953, 194219. Philip also notes Livingston's absurd engineering notions; see, for example, 208. See also Morrison, 2033. Fulton and Livingston, who shared the New York monopoly, also won a monopoly on the Mississippi in 1811, which they were never able to enforce. Baxter, 325; Philip, 11953, 194219. Philip also notes Livingston's absurd engineering notions; see, for example, 208. See also Morrison, 2033. Fulton and Livingston, who shared the New York monopoly, also won a monopoly on the Mississippi in 1811, which they were never able to enforce.16 Baxter, 2531; John Niven, Baxter, 2531; John Niven, Martin Van Buren and the Romantic Age of American Politics Martin Van Buren and the Romantic Age of American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 1113; Mann, 117238; Gregg, 12041; Thomas Campbell Jr., "Chancellor Kent, Chief Justice Marshall, and the Steamboat Case," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 1113; Mann, 117238; Gregg, 12041; Thomas Campbell Jr., "Chancellor Kent, Chief Justice Marshall, and the Steamboat Case," Syracuse Law Review Syracuse Law Review 25 (1974): 497534. Ogden paid $600 to $800 a year, depending on the schedule; see Jonathan Dayton to TG, February 23, 1815, and Copy of Articles of Agreement between JRL and AO, May 5, 1815, GP It should be noted that Ogden fought the New York monopoly by securing his own monopoly from the New Jersey legislature when he was the sitting governor. Fulton went to New Jersey to lobby the legislature (successfully) to rescind Ogden's grant, and then fell ill after he pulled his lawyer out of a crack in the ice on the Hudson. He died on February 24, 1815. 25 (1974): 497534. Ogden paid $600 to $800 a year, depending on the schedule; see Jonathan Dayton to TG, February 23, 1815, and Copy of Articles of Agreement between JRL and AO, May 5, 1815, GP It should be noted that Ogden fought the New York monopoly by securing his own monopoly from the New Jersey legislature when he was the sitting governor. Fulton went to New Jersey to lobby the legislature (successfully) to rescind Ogden's grant, and then fell ill after he pulled his lawyer out of a crack in the ice on the Hudson. He died on February 24, 1815.17 J. M. Trumbull to TG, November 18, 1814, TG to Mrs. Ann H. Gibbons, May 13, 1816, TG to AO, May 30, 1816, John M. Trumbull to Mrs. TG, August 14, 1818, GP; J. M. Trumbull to TG, November 18, 1814, TG to Mrs. Ann H. Gibbons, May 13, 1816, TG to AO, May 30, 1816, John M. Trumbull to Mrs. TG, August 14, 1818, GP; AO v. TG AO v. TG, Supreme Court of Judicature of the State of New Jersey (February Term, 1819), 2 South. 5, 61236, 100515. See also Baxter, 315, 1931, and Philip.18 TG to AO, Copybook, September 25, 1814, TG to General Dayton, June 23, 1812, TG to Mrs. Ann H. Gibbons, May 13, 1816, TG to Ellet Tucker, January 3, 1816, TG to David B. Ogden, June 1, 1816, AO to TG, June 1, 1816, Jonathan Dayton to TG, February 23, 1815, TG to AO, August 4, 1815, Statement of Mrs. Trumbull, 1815, AO to TG, December 23, 1815, Jonathan Dayton to TG, 1816, TG to WG, April 3, 1816, J. M. Trumbull to TG, November 18, 1814, TG to AO, May 30, 1816, GP; TG to AO, Copybook, September 25, 1814, TG to General Dayton, June 23, 1812, TG to Mrs. Ann H. Gibbons, May 13, 1816, TG to Ellet Tucker, January 3, 1816, TG to David B. Ogden, June 1, 1816, AO to TG, June 1, 1816, Jonathan Dayton to TG, February 23, 1815, TG to AO, August 4, 1815, Statement of Mrs. Trumbull, 1815, AO to TG, December 23, 1815, Jonathan Dayton to TG, 1816, TG to WG, April 3, 1816, J. M. Trumbull to TG, November 18, 1814, TG to AO, May 30, 1816, GP; AO v. TG AO v. TG, Supreme Court of Judicature of the State of New Jersey (February Term, 1819), 2 South. 5, 61236, 100515; The State v. TG The State v. TG, Supreme Court of Judicature of the State of New Jersey (February Term, 1818), 1 South. 4, 4564; EP EP, September 22, 1818.19 EP EP, February 4, 1818. The EP EP story referred to "Mr. Vanderbilt's packet ferry boat story referred to "Mr. Vanderbilt's packet ferry boat Dread," Dread," leaving the possibility that someone else commanded it; the narrative reflects my belief that this is extremely unlikely, given the storm, the skill with which the boat was handled, and the incident that followed at Sandy Hook, in which CV clearly piloted the leaving the possibility that someone else commanded it; the narrative reflects my belief that this is extremely unlikely, given the storm, the skill with which the boat was handled, and the incident that followed at Sandy Hook, in which CV clearly piloted the Dread in Dread in person. person.20 EP EP, February 27, 1818; New York Commercial Advertiser New York Commercial Advertiser, February 27, 1818; New York Daily Advertiser New York Daily Advertiser, February 28, 1818. On the world of the countinghouses, see Albion, 26086.21 Lawrence & Sneden to TG, February 21, 1818, CV to TG, February 24, 1818, Thomas P. Allaire to TG, March 16, 1818, Alex B. Allaire to TG, March 19, 1818, TG to Brewster, Collector of the Port of Amboy August 29, 1818, GP; Morrison, 415, 170; John H. Morrison, Lawrence & Sneden to TG, February 21, 1818, CV to TG, February 24, 1818, Thomas P. Allaire to TG, March 16, 1818, Alex B. Allaire to TG, March 19, 1818, TG to Brewster, Collector of the Port of Amboy August 29, 1818, GP; Morrison, 415, 170; John H. Morrison, History of New York Ship Yards History of New York Ship Yards (New York: Wm. F. Sametz & Co., 1909), 2249; Burrows & Wallace, 4413; (New York: Wm. F. Sametz & Co., 1909), 2249; Burrows & Wallace, 4413; Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117, 17. On TG'S afflictions, see, for example, TG to P. J. Munro, January 28, 1819, GP, in which TG wrote, "Old age is sensible of its weaknesses. And now I am severely afflicted with disease. I have been but twice beyond my front door for 4 weeks. And more than all this my eyes refuse their office. I am set down a stranger amidst a host of enemies." CV was seen as a leader of Staten Island's boatmen; see TG to Alderman Buckmaster, September 6, 1818, GP; and Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 17841831 Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 17841831, vol. 9 (New York: City of New York, 1917), 766 (copy in NYMA).22 Memorandum of Agreement, June 26, 1818, GP; CV in Account with the Steamboat Bellona, July 1 to August 1, 1821, CV in Account with the Steamboat Bellona, August 1 to September 1, 1821, GP-R; W. J. Rorabaugh, Memorandum of Agreement, June 26, 1818, GP; CV in Account with the Steamboat Bellona, July 1 to August 1, 1821, CV in Account with the Steamboat Bellona, August 1 to September 1, 1821, GP-R; W. J. Rorabaugh, The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).23 On CVs own vessels, see Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, and Enrollment Number 361, December 22, 1820, and Number 21, February 26, 1821, vol. 12148, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA. On CVs own vessels, see Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, and Enrollment Number 361, December 22, 1820, and Number 21, February 26, 1821, vol. 12148, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA.24 TG to John Randolph, March 20, 1816, TG to WG, November 19, 1816, TG to Peter Munro (Draft), January 21, 1819, GP. TG to John Randolph, March 20, 1816, TG to WG, November 19, 1816, TG to Peter Munro (Draft), January 21, 1819, GP.25 TG to Seth D. Staples, May 11, 1822, Thomas Gibbons Papers, Misc. Files, NYPL. It is difficult to know why no commerce clause cases had come before, but the answer seems to lie in the fact that there was such little interstate commerce before the boom that followed the War of 1812. TG to Seth D. Staples, May 11, 1822, Thomas Gibbons Papers, Misc. Files, NYPL. It is difficult to know why no commerce clause cases had come before, but the answer seems to lie in the fact that there was such little interstate commerce before the boom that followed the War of 1812.26 Herbert A. Johnson, Herbert A. Johnson, "Gibbons v. Ogden "Gibbons v. Ogden Before Marshall," in Leo Hershkowitz and Milton M. Klein, eds., Before Marshall," in Leo Hershkowitz and Milton M. Klein, eds., Courts and Law in Early New York Courts and Law in Early New York (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 10513; Aaron Burr, "Of the Validity of the Laws Granting Livingston & Fulton the Exclusive Right of Using Fire and Steam to Propel Boats or Vessels," Document GLC06183, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS. (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 10513; Aaron Burr, "Of the Validity of the Laws Granting Livingston & Fulton the Exclusive Right of Using Fire and Steam to Propel Boats or Vessels," Document GLC06183, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS.27 Philip, 200, 22930, 252, 28994, 315; Dangerfield, 4157; Charles H. Rhind, Accounts of the North River Steam Boat Company, December 2, 1819, JRL to Robert L. Livingston, September 9, 1821, LFP Regarding the North River's profits, it must be remembered that accounting remained primitive, and the company did not calculate depreciation; see Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," Philip, 200, 22930, 252, 28994, 315; Dangerfield, 4157; Charles H. Rhind, Accounts of the North River Steam Boat Company, December 2, 1819, JRL to Robert L. Livingston, September 9, 1821, LFP Regarding the North River's profits, it must be remembered that accounting remained primitive, and the company did not calculate depreciation; see Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," AHR AHR 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966. For an idea of how large these sums were, $100,000 represented the total capital investment of James P. Allaire's extensive steam engine works, one of the largest employers in New York with as many as one hundred workmen; James P. Allaire to TG, January 10, 1822, GP. 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966. For an idea of how large these sums were, $100,000 represented the total capital investment of James P. Allaire's extensive steam engine works, one of the largest employers in New York with as many as one hundred workmen; James P. Allaire to TG, January 10, 1822, GP.28 Memorandum of General Dayton, October 16, 1815, Memorandum of WG, December 5, 1817, GP. On Livingston's New Brunswick line, see Memorandum of General Dayton, October 16, 1815, Memorandum of WG, December 5, 1817, GP. On Livingston's New Brunswick line, see NBF NBF, November 6, 1817. For a description of the Atalanta Atalanta, see EP EP, June 1, 1822.29 On the entanglements of DDT, TG, CV, AO, and the Livingstons, see TG to AO, December 10, 1818, WG Memorandum, December 11, 1818, AO to TG, December 12, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, December 27, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 21, 1819, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 28, 1819, CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, James P. Allaire to TG, January 4, 1818, DDT to TG, May 21, 1818, GP; On the entanglements of DDT, TG, CV, AO, and the Livingstons, see TG to AO, December 10, 1818, WG Memorandum, December 11, 1818, AO to TG, December 12, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, December 27, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 21, 1819, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 28, 1819, CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, James P. Allaire to TG, January 4, 1818, DDT to TG, May 21, 1818, GP; Gibbons v. Ogden Gibbons v. Ogden, Court of Errors, January 1820, 17 Johns., 488510; Agreement of DDT, Adam Brown, and Noah Brown, October 11, 1817, Staten Island Papers, NYHS; DDT to Edward P. Livingston, October 5, 1818, LFP On DDT himself, see Niven, 1129, 767; Ray W. Irwin, Daniel D. Tompkins: Governor of New York and Vice President of the United States Daniel D. Tompkins: Governor of New York and Vice President of the United States (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1968), 21333. In various court records, it appears that JRL sold to DDT the rights to steam to Staten Island (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1968), 21333. In various court records, it appears that JRL sold to DDT the rights to steam to Staten Island (see JRL v. DDT (see JRL v. DDT, June 1, 1820, New York Court of Chancery, 4 Johns. Chancery, 41332); his frequent complaints, however, suggest that he had been pressured into it; see JRL to Robert L. Livingston, September 9, 1821, LFP.30 Rachel Stevens to R. Stevens, October 12, 1819, Stevens Family Papers, New Jersey Historical Society (copy in GP). Rachel Stevens to R. Stevens, October 12, 1819, Stevens Family Papers, New Jersey Historical Society (copy in GP).31 TG to AO, October 31, 1817, TG to Peter Jay Munro, October 3, 1818, TG to AO, October 31, 1817, TG to Peter Jay Munro, October 3, 1818, GP; AO v. TG GP; AO v. TG, December 4, 1819, file O-109, Court of Chancery, NYCC; Ogden v. Gibbons Ogden v. Gibbons, 4 Johns. Chancery, 150, and Gibbons v. Ogden Gibbons v. Ogden, Court of Errors, January 1820, 17 Johns., 488510; NBF NBF, November 3, 1817; EP EP, September 22, 1818; Johnson, "Gibbons v. Ogden "Gibbons v. Ogden Before Marshall." See also Baxter. Before Marshall." See also Baxter.32 Sworn statements of John G. Dusenberry June 21, 1819, DDT to TG, July 14, 1819, James Ward to TG, October 22, 1819, GP; In the Matter of Vanderbilt, July 1, 1819, New York Court of Chancery, 4 Johns. Chancery, 5762; Affidavit of CV, Sworn statements of John G. Dusenberry June 21, 1819, DDT to TG, July 14, 1819, James Ward to TG, October 22, 1819, GP; In the Matter of Vanderbilt, July 1, 1819, New York Court of Chancery, 4 Johns. Chancery, 5762; Affidavit of CV, AO v. TG AO v. TG, December 4, 1819, file O-109, Court of Chancery, NYCC; Johnson, "Gibbons v. Ogden." "Gibbons v. Ogden."33 Allan R. Pred, Allan R. Pred, Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 14377; Margaret G. Meyers, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 14377; Margaret G. Meyers, The New York Money Market The New York Money Market, vol. 1: Origins and Development Origins and Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 39; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 39; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1214, 2226; and see especially Diane Lindstrom, (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1214, 2226; and see especially Diane Lindstrom, Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977). CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, TG to JRL, April 22, 1819, Agents of the Union Line to TG, June 14, 1819, Articles of Agreement, April 22, 1822, GP; (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977). CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, TG to JRL, April 22, 1819, Agents of the Union Line to TG, June 14, 1819, Articles of Agreement, April 22, 1822, GP; Gibbons v. Ogden Gibbons v. Ogden, Court of Errors, January 1820, 17 Johns., 488510.34 On JRL'S New Brunswick line, see On JRL'S New Brunswick line, see NBF NBF, November 6, 1817. His monopoly was immensely unpopular in New Brunswick; see Petition from Citizens of New Brunswick, February 26, 1819, Sworn statements of John G. Dusenberry, June 21, 1819, TG to Isaac Pierson, Samuel Tooker, Edmund Smith et al., May 13, 1822, GP. The complicated tactical maneuvering of this struggle defies description, as TG sought ways around the injunctions that barred his boat from New York. For example, JRL actually sought injunctions against both AO and TG, because the two had come to a temporary arrangement to connect with one another, since New Brunswick was the natural destination of passengers from New York, but AO was barred from going there under the terms of his license. In addition, DDT subdivided the rights he had purchased from the monopoly, and sold TG the right to travel between Staten Island and New Jersey, which allowed the Bellona Bellona to connect to the to connect to the Nautilus Nautilus. Affidavit of Wm. B. Jacques, April 27, 1819, Proposed Agreement between TG and JRL, drafted by Livingston, April 1, 1819, JRL to TG, April 21, 1819, TG to JRL, April 22, 1819, Agreement between DDT and TG, May 13, 1819, GP; DDT to Edward P. Livingston, October 5, 1818, LFP See also Affidavit of CV, AO v. TG CV, AO v. TG, December 4, 1819, file O-109, Court of Chancery, NYCC.35 NBF NBF, September 30, 1819; CV to TG, January 5, 1820, TG to Daniel Webster, December 13, 1819, GP; Johnson, "Gibbons v. Ogden," "Gibbons v. Ogden," 10911; Robert V. Remini, 10911; Robert V. Remini, Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1997), 201. An excellent summary of the legal conflict appears in Andrew J. King, ed., (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1997), 201. An excellent summary of the legal conflict appears in Andrew J. King, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster: Legal Papers, 3: The Federal Practice, Part I The Papers of Daniel Webster: Legal Papers, 3: The Federal Practice, Part I (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1989), 2559. TG also sought a repeal of the monopoly in the state legislature, but Martin Van Buren declined an offer of $100 to push the cause; TG to William Price, March 1, 1819, James Ward to TG, October 22, 1819, TG'S memorandum with John W. Patterson, March 18, 1819, GP. (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1989), 2559. TG also sought a repeal of the monopoly in the state legislature, but Martin Van Buren declined an offer of $100 to push the cause; TG to William Price, March 1, 1819, James Ward to TG, October 22, 1819, TG'S memorandum with John W. Patterson, March 18, 1819, GP.36 New York Daily Advertiser New York Daily Advertiser, February 7 and 8, 1820; New York Commercial Advertiser New York Commercial Advertiser, February 7, 1820; EP EP, February 7, 1820; Lane, 39; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 18161865 The African Colonization Movement, 18161865 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 558. For CVs address, see TG to CV, January 25, 1821, GP. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 558. For CVs address, see TG to CV, January 25, 1821, GP.37 "The New Jersey Monopolies," "The New Jersey Monopolies," NAR NAR, April 1867, 42876 (see esp. 434); TG v. JRL TG v. JRL and and TG v. AO TG v. AO, 1 South. 6, 236300; Affidavit of CV July 24, 1820, GP. It should be noted that the flurry of injunctions did not cease. The legal conflict was staggeringly complicated, but the general thrust was that the Bellona Bellona was regularly allowed to run to New York. was regularly allowed to run to New York.38 On the On the Bellona's Bellona's connection to the city, and the Philadelphia route, see connection to the city, and the Philadelphia route, see NBF NBF, May 11, November 9, 1820; EP EP, January 3, April 29, November 25, 1820; Anne Royall, Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the United States Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the United States (New Haven: n.p., 1826), 239; entry for May 22, 1824, Samuel S. Griscom Diary, May to June 1824, NYHS; Frances Trollope, (New Haven: n.p., 1826), 239; entry for May 22, 1824, Samuel S. Griscom Diary, May to June 1824, NYHS; Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 3356. Philip Hone, in a diary entry for March 13, 1832, recorded that the steamboat passage between New York and New Brunswick took four and a half hours; Hone, 58. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 3356. Philip Hone, in a diary entry for March 13, 1832, recorded that the steamboat passage between New York and New Brunswick took four and a half hours; Hone, 58.39 Enrollment Number 53, October 10, 1818, Perth Amboy Custom House Enrollments, 18181821, vol. 2169, Custom House Records, RG 41, NA. For illustrations of early steamboats, see Morrison, and the five volumes of Erik Heyl's very useful work. An excellent capsule description of steamboat patterns in the East and the development of the industry can be found in Taylor, 5661. Enrollment Number 53, October 10, 1818, Perth Amboy Custom House Enrollments, 18181821, vol. 2169, Custom House Records, RG 41, NA. For illustrations of early steamboats, see Morrison, and the five volumes of Erik Heyl's very useful work. An excellent capsule description of steamboat patterns in the East and the development of the industry can be found in Taylor, 5661.40 NBF NBF, March 11, 1819; Memorandum Signed by TG and John Lisle, March 5, 1819, Roster of Bellona Bellona crew, October 1828, John Hunt Receipt, September 1, 1818, Inventory of Bellona Articles, December 19, 1825, J. & S. Fischer Receipt, August 229, 1821, George H. Cooper Receipt, August 31, 1821, Receipt of John Hutchings, May 31, 1822, GP-R; Archibald Douglass Turnbull, crew, October 1828, John Hunt Receipt, September 1, 1818, Inventory of Bellona Articles, December 19, 1825, J. & S. Fischer Receipt, August 229, 1821, George H. Cooper Receipt, August 31, 1821, Receipt of John Hutchings, May 31, 1822, GP-R; Archibald Douglass Turnbull, John Stevens: An American Record John Stevens: An American Record (New York: Century Company, 1928), 443; Trollope, 335. (New York: Century Company, 1928), 443; Trollope, 335.41 Enrollment Number 361, December 22, 1820, New York Custom House Enrollments, November 14, 1820, to May 29, 1821, vol. 12148, RG 41, NA; Enrollment Number 361, December 22, 1820, New York Custom House Enrollments, November 14, 1820, to May 29, 1821, vol. 12148, RG 41, NA; SA SA, June 18, 1853; EP EP, March 8, 1820, January 8, 1821; Heyl, 2:278; Heyl, 5:412; Agreement for Sale of the Mouse Mouse, March 18, 1820, GP.42 TG to Peter Jay Munro, December 27, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 21, 1819, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 28, 1819, CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, James P. Allaire to TG, January 4, 1818, GP. TG to Peter Jay Munro, December 27, 1818, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 21, 1819, TG to Peter Jay Munro, January 28, 1819, CV to TG, February 2, 1819, CV to TG, February 24, 1819, James P. Allaire to TG, January 4, 1818, GP.43 CV to TG, December 25, 1820, Nath. Shuff & Co. to TG, December 25, 1820, TG to Isaac Brown, copy by CV January 5, 1821, CV to TG, January 13, 1821, Isaac Brown to TG, January 21, 1821, TG to D. B. Ogden, February 15, 1821, Receipt of William Wirt, February 27, 1821, Receipt of Daniel Webster, February 28, 1821, TG to Daniel Webster, April 2, 1821, GP; CV to TG, January 25, 1821, CV-NYHS; CV to TG, December 25, 1820, Nath. Shuff & Co. to TG, December 25, 1820, TG to Isaac Brown, copy by CV January 5, 1821, CV to TG, January 13, 1821, Isaac Brown to TG, January 21, 1821, TG to D. B. Ogden, February 15, 1821, Receipt of William Wirt, February 27, 1821, Receipt of Daniel Webster, February 28, 1821, TG to Daniel Webster, April 2, 1821, GP; CV to TG, January 25, 1821, CV-NYHS; Gibbons v. Ogden Gibbons v. Ogden, March 8, 1821, 6 Wheaton, 44850. See also Daniel Webster to TG, May 9, 1821, GP.44 Lane writes that CV now moved to a house on Renwick Street in New York, citing an agreement between CV and J. S. Watkins & Brothers, February 13, 1821, and an agreement with David Fenton and J. S. & L. S. Watkins, February 13, 1821, CV-NYPL. However, the signature on these papers does not match that of Lane writes that CV now moved to a house on Renwick Street in New York, citing an agreement between CV and J. S. Watkins & Brothers, February 13, 1821, and an agreement with David Fenton and J. S. & L. S. Watkins, February 13, 1821, CV-NYPL. However, the signature on these papers does not match that of CV CV, and there was at least one other Cornelius Vanderbilt in New York at the time, as shown by NYCC records. For a convenient listing of CVs progeny, see Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Commodore Vanderbilt and his Family Commodore Vanderbilt and his Family (Hendersonville, N.C.: n.p., 1989), 22. (Hendersonville, N.C.: n.p., 1989), 22.45 Charles H. Rhind, Accounts of the North River Steam Boat Company, December 2, 1819, JRL to Robert L. Livingston, September 9, 1821, LFP; Robert Montgomery Livingston to AO, October 3, 1820, Aaron Ogden Papers, Rutgers University. Dangerfield, 414, discusses Chancellor Livingston's calculations that there was a limit on the traffic to Albany. Charles H. Rhind, Accounts of the North River Steam Boat Company, December 2, 1819, JRL to Robert L. Livingston, September 9, 1821, LFP; Robert Montgomery Livingston to AO, October 3, 1820, Aaron Ogden Papers, Rutgers University. Dangerfield, 414, discusses Chancellor Livingston's calculations that there was a limit on the traffic to Albany.46 In the Supreme Court of the United States between Cornelius Vanderbilt and John R. Livingston In the Supreme Court of the United States between Cornelius Vanderbilt and John R. Livingston (New York: Edwin B. Clayton, 1823), copy in GP; Paul A. Gilje, (New York: Edwin B. Clayton, 1823), copy in GP; Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 17631834 The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 17631834 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 2757; A. E. Costello, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 2757; A. E. Costello, Our Police Protectors: History of the New York Police from the Earliest Period to the Present Time Our Police Protectors: History of the New York Police from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, 2nd ed. (New York: n.p., 1885), 923, 98.47 D. O. Price to TG, October 27, 1821, GP. D. O. Price to TG, October 27, 1821, GP.48 CV in Account with Steamboat Bellona, August 1, 1821, GP-R; Memorandum of Agreement between TG and Lawrence & Sneeden, October 16, 1821, CV to TG, November 16, 1821, GP; CV in Account with Steamboat Bellona, August 1, 1821, GP-R; Memorandum of Agreement between TG and Lawrence & Sneeden, October 16, 1821, CV to TG, November 16, 1821, GP; NBF NBF, November 9, 1820.49 Lane, 37; Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutch-ness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," Lane, 37; Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutch-ness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," NYHis 77 NYHis 77, no. 3 (July 1996): 273300; CV to TG, March 1, April 12, 1822, Abraham DeGraw to TG, June 22, 1822, Thomas Hill Rental Receipt, November 1, 1822, GP; Copy of TG'S Will, October 26, 1825, Thomas Gibbons Papers, NYHS; TG to ?, March 12, 1822, GP-R; MacDowell, 22. It appears from DeGraw's letter that TG initially rented, or planned to rent, the building to DeGraw, but CV occupied it before the end of 1822. For CVs salary, see CV in Account with Steamboat Bellona, August 1, 1821, GP-R. Details about the education of the children emerged during the trial over CVs will; see the testimony of Daniel B. Allen, NYS NYS, November 13, 1877.50 EP EP, March 28, 1822; James P. Allaire to TG, January 11, 1822, Petition of the Ship-Builders of the City of New-York, February 1, 1822, Statement of Isaac Brown, June 21, 1822, Instructions to Mr. Parkman, August 6, 1822, TG to AO, March 22, 30, 1822, GP. On the state of New YorkPhiladelphia trade during this time, see Trenton Federalist Trenton Federalist, August 26, 1822.51 Countryman, "From Revolution," 36975; Wood, 26870, 287305; Donald B. Cole, Countryman, "From Revolution," 36975; Wood, 26870, 287305; Donald B. Cole, Martin Van Buren and the American Political System Martin Van Buren and the American Political System (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 8898; Cynthia A. Kierner, "Patrician Womanhood in the Early Republic: The 'Reminiscences' of Janet Livingston Montgomery," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 8898; Cynthia A. Kierner, "Patrician Womanhood in the Early Republic: The 'Reminiscences' of Janet Livingston Montgomery," NYHis NYHis 73, no. 4 (October 1992): 389407; see especially Fischer. 73, no. 4 (October 1992): 389407; see especially Fischer.52 R. M. Livingston to TG, June 14, 25, 27, August 31, 1822, WG to TG, September 8, 1822, GP. R. M. Livingston to TG, June 14, 25, 27, August 31, 1822, WG to TG, September 8, 1822, GP.53 EP EP, August 26, 31, November 5, 1822; Memorandum of TG, September 18, 1822, William B. Jaques to TG, September 12, 1822, WG to TG, September 8, 1822, Memorandum of TG, November 27, 1822, GP.54 CV to TG, November 4, 1822, GP; Countryman, "From Statehood," 369; Gunn, 268; Wood, 32547; Andrew Burstein, CV to TG, November 4, 1822, GP; Countryman, "From Statehood," 369; Gunn, 268; Wood, 32547; Andrew Burstein, America's Jubilee America's Jubilee (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), esp. 345. See also Burstein's (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), esp. 345. See also Burstein's Sentimental Democracy: The Evolution of America's Romantic Self-Image Sentimental Democracy: The Evolution of America's Romantic Self-Image (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), which examines "the Americanization of sensibility," and (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), which examines "the Americanization of sensibility," and Confidence Men Confidence Men, 5660, 94. Bruegel is also very illuminating on the penetration of the market into the private sphere. A reference to CV as an "economic man" appears in Edward J. Renehan Jr., Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt (New York: Basic Books, 2007), but I wrote this passage in 2003, several years before Renehan began work on his book. (New York: Basic Books, 2007), but I wrote this passage in 2003, several years before Renehan began work on his book.55 CV to TG, March 1, November 4, 1822, Robert Arnold to TG, May 23, 1822, GP. CV to TG, March 1, November 4, 1822, Robert Arnold to TG, May 23, 1822, GP.56 TG also claimed that CV had plotted to cheat a Griswold, probably a stage operator or boatman, by running directly to South Amboy; TG to WG, December 12, 1822, GP; Lane, 40; TG also claimed that CV had plotted to cheat a Griswold, probably a stage operator or boatman, by running directly to South Amboy; TG to WG, December 12, 1822, GP; Lane, 40; Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117. Regarding CVs partnership with Allaire in the Fanny Fanny, see Conference abt. Fanny, undated memorandum, GP; EP EP, March 31, April 1, 1822; NYS NYS, November 13, 1877. Though CV would later be renowned for his harness racing, the horses discussed by TG almost certainly were Thoroughbreds, as harness racing remained an informal sport with inexpensive horses; see Melvin L. Adelman, "The First Modern Sport in America: Harness Racing in New York City, 18251870," Journal of Sport History Journal of Sport History 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532. 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532.57 CV to TG, April 1, 1823, TG to WG, April 4, 1823, GP; CV to TG, April 1, 1823, TG to WG, April 4, 1823, GP; New York Daily Advertiser New York Daily Advertiser, March 31, 1823.58 CV to WG, March 25, 1823, GP. CV to WG, March 25, 1823, GP.59 JRL v. CV JRL v. CV, December 28, 1822, file L J-1822-V-18, Supreme Court Judgments, NYCC.60 Lane, 345, 401; TG to WG, May 2, 4, 5, 17, 1823, GP. Lane, 345, 401; TG to WG, May 2, 4, 5, 17, 1823, GP.61 James Day and Jacob Vanderbilt appear in the November 1823 receipts in GP-R. Regarding the New Brunswick dock maneuver, see CV to TG, April 11, 1823, GP. The two CV letters quoted (cited in Lane, 345, 401) no longer appear in the GP, and appear to have been lost, misfiled, or stolen. As will be deduced, CVs parents had had a second son named Jacob. James Day and Jacob Vanderbilt appear in the November 1823 receipts in GP-R. Regarding the New Brunswick dock maneuver, see CV to TG, April 11, 1823, GP. The two CV letters quoted (cited in Lane, 345, 401) no longer appear in the GP, and appear to have been lost, misfiled, or stolen. As will be deduced, CVs parents had had a second son named Jacob.62 Baxter, 379; King, 270; for a marvelous portrait of the now-forgotten Wirt, see Burstein, Baxter, 379; King, 270; for a marvelous portrait of the now-forgotten Wirt, see Burstein, America's Jubilee America's Jubilee, 3458.63 Wood, 287305; Donald B. Cole, Wood, 287305; Donald B. Cole, Martin Van Buren and the American Political System Martin Van Buren and the American Political System (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 8898; Cynthia A. Kierner, "Patrician Womanhood in the Early Republic: The 'Reminiscences' of Janet Livingston Montgomery, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 8898; Cynthia A. Kierner, "Patrician Womanhood in the Early Republic: The 'Reminiscences' of Janet Livingston Montgomery," NYHis 73, no. 4 (October 1992): 389407; Baxter, 2331; TG to WG, January 23, 1823, CV to TG, January 22, 1823, William Talmage to TG, January 20, 1823, 73, no. 4 (October 1992): 389407; Baxter, 2331; TG to WG, January 23, 1823, CV to TG, January 22, 1823, William Talmage to TG, January 20, 1823, In the Supreme Court of the United States, Between Cornelius Vanderbilt and John R. Livingston In the Supreme Court of the United States, Between Cornelius Vanderbilt and John R. Livingston (New York: Edwin B. Clanton, 1823), GP; JRL to Robert L. Livingston, December 15, 1823, LFP. (New York: Edwin B. Clanton, 1823), GP; JRL to Robert L. Livingston, December 15, 1823, LFP.64 Statement of Interview between Walter Livingston and WG, January 27, 1824, GP. Statement of Interview between Walter Livingston and WG, January 27, 1824, GP.65 Baxter, 40; Remini, 89. Baxter, 40; Remini, 89.66 See especially Horwitz, 11034, and Appleby See especially Horwitz, 11034, and Appleby Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 568, 889. Appleby powerfully argues that economic and political liberalization were linked, though I would stress that the link between government intervention and elite politics was most marked at the state level in the case of New York; see Miller, 1019. Some of Hamilton's federal policies democratized the economy in ways that he did not intend, as women and artisans bought shares and took loans; see Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," BHR BHR 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060. 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060.67 Baxter, 4057, 701, 80; Remini, 2028; King, 27091; 9 Wheaton U.S. 1; Baxter, 4057, 701, 80; Remini, 2028; King, 27091; 9 Wheaton U.S. 1; EP EP, March 5, 1822; see also NR NR, March 27, 1824.

Three A Tricky God A Tricky God 1 Receipt of Thomas Richards from Capt. Vanderbilt for Steamboat Receipt of Thomas Richards from Capt. Vanderbilt for Steamboat Thistle Thistle, March 31, 1824, Receipt of Blossom, Smith, & Demon to Steamboat Thistle Thistle, April 14, 1824, GP-R; Enrollment Number 16, Thistle Thistle, April 3, 1824, Perth Amboy Custom House, Certificates of Enrollment, 182426, vol. 2196, Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA; EP EP, April 23, 1824; Wheaton J. Lane, From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: Travel and Transportation in New Jersey, 16201860 From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: Travel and Transportation in New Jersey, 16201860 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939), 203. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939), 203.2 EP EP, March 13, 1823, March 5, 16, 18, 26, 1824; NBF NBF, March 11, 1824; NR NR, March 27, 1824; New York Daily Advertiser New York Daily Advertiser, March 6, 8, 1824; Maurice G. Baxter, The Steamboat Monopoly: Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824 The Steamboat Monopoly: Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 701, 80. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 701, 80.3 Leonard W. Levy, Leonard W. Levy, Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1995), 439; R. Kent Newmeyer, (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1995), 439; R. Kent Newmeyer, John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 26971, 30215; Jean Edward Smith, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 26971, 30215; Jean Edward Smith, John Marshall: Definer of a Nation John Marshall: Definer of a Nation (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 481. On the erosion of state franchises and "exclusionary privileges of first entrants" in American law, see Morton J. Horwitz, (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 481. On the erosion of state franchises and "exclusionary privileges of first entrants" in American law, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 34, 11039. On the popular enthusiasm for laissez-faire, see the works of Joyce Appleby, such as "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 34, 11039. On the popular enthusiasm for laissez-faire, see the works of Joyce Appleby, such as "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," JER JER 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118. In 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118. In Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984), Appleby explicitly argues that the free market came to be seen as a natural force. For a contemporary discussion along these lines of (New York: New York University Press, 1984), Appleby explicitly argues that the free market came to be seen as a natural force. For a contemporary discussion along these lines of Gibbons v. Ogden Gibbons v. Ogden and monopolies, see and monopolies, see Workingman's Advocate Workingman's Advocate, August 16, 1834.4 Baxter, 61133, discusses the evaluations of the decision and its many legal consequences, and includes the Beveridge quote. See also Albert J. Beveridge, Baxter, 61133, discusses the evaluations of the decision and its many legal consequences, and includes the Beveridge quote. See also Albert J. Beveridge, Life of John Marshall Life of John Marshall, vol. 4 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947, orig. pub. 1919), 4458; Charles Warren, The Supreme Court in United States History The Supreme Court in United States History, vol. 2 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1922), 5886, John Randolph quoted on 71. See also G. Edward White, The Marshall Court and Cultural Change: 181535 The Marshall Court and Cultural Change: 181535 (New York: Macmillan, 1988). To understand Marshall's decision in the larger legal context of the era, one must consult Horwitz's discussion of the emerging acceptance of competition and the declining primacy of state franchises, 10939. (New York: Macmillan, 1988). To understand Marshall's decision in the larger legal context of the era, one must consult Horwitz's discussion of the emerging acceptance of competition and the declining primacy of state franchises, 10939.5 John Lauritz Larson, John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 80, notes that the Erie Canal so solidified New York's position that the city captured railroads, instead of having railroads divert trade elsewhere. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 80, notes that the Erie Canal so solidified New York's position that the city captured railroads, instead of having railroads divert trade elsewhere.6 The registration figures compare 1825 with typical prior years (the 1825 number reflects the number of vessels built in 1824, after The registration figures compare 1825 with typical prior years (the 1825 number reflects the number of vessels built in 1824, after Gibbons v. Ogden) Gibbons v. Ogden). See Bureau of Navigation, Merchant Steam Vessels of the United States, 1807 to 1856 Merchant Steam Vessels of the United States, 1807 to 1856 (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Commerce, 1931), 57. (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Commerce, 1931), 57. NR NR cited in Smith, 481. cited in Smith, 481.7 Baxter, 628, 70; Paul G. E. Clemens, "Aaron Ogden," Baxter, 628, 70; Paul G. E. Clemens, "Aaron Ogden," ANB ANB. For an inside look at the rising tensions between JRL and his nephews, see the correspondence between Charles H. Rhind and Robert L. Livingston, April 26, July 16, 31, September 4, 1824, LFP On the transformation of the old patricians, see David Hackett Fischer, The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), and Wood, 32547. (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), and Wood, 32547.8 Bill of Jacob Wyckoff to TG, March 1, 1824, TG in Account with CV, September 1, 1824, Statement of the Union Line Way-Bills on the Noon Line, 1826 and 1827, GP-R. Bill of Jacob Wyckoff to TG, March 1, 1824, TG in Account with CV, September 1, 1824, Statement of the Union Line Way-Bills on the Noon Line, 1826 and 1827, GP-R.9 EP EP, April 29, May 17, 19, 1824; CV to TG, April 30, 1824, GP; Anne Royall, Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the United States Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the United States (New Haven: n.p., 1826), 239; Harlan I. Halsey "The Choice Between High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Steam Power in America in the Early Nineteenth Century," (New Haven: n.p., 1826), 239; Harlan I. Halsey "The Choice Between High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Steam Power in America in the Early Nineteenth Century," JEH JEH 41, no. 4 (December 1981): 72344. In slightly more than a decade, on March 14, 1836, Philip Hone was able to write in his diary: "The loss of life from steamboat explosions, railroad accidents, falling walls, etc. has gotten to be a matter of every-day occurence, and no longer occasions surprise or excites sympathy" And yet his frequent comments on deadly steam disasters shows how troubling they were to Americans; Hone, 203, 261. 41, no. 4 (December 1981): 72344. In slightly more than a decade, on March 14, 1836, Philip Hone was able to write in his diary: "The loss of life from steamboat explosions, railroad accidents, falling walls, etc. has gotten to be a matter of every-day occurence, and no longer occasions surprise or excites sympathy" And yet his frequent comments on deadly steam disasters shows how troubling they were to Americans; Hone, 203, 261.10 William Benedict, William Benedict, New Brunswick in History New Brunswick in History (New Brunswick, N.J.: n.p., 1925), 178; CV to TG, April 27, 1824, GP; (New Brunswick, N.J.: n.p., 1925), 178; CV to TG, April 27, 1824, GP; EP EP, May 27, 1824. On the New Brunswick investors behind the ferry business, see the NP. CV's insight is all the more remarkable because corporations at this time were thought of as a kind of partnership in which ownership and management were one and the same. See, for example, Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965.11 New York Daily Advertiser New York Daily Advertiser, June 4, 1824; EP EP, June 5, 1824; Sam S. Griscom, "Journal of a Tour thro N. Jersey, Penn and N. York with occasional remarks on the people, Literary characters Ladies Institutions &c. &c. &c.," 1824, NYHS. For details on the Legislator's Legislator's company, the Exchange Line, and transportation across New Jersey in general at this time, see Lane, company, the Exchange Line, and transportation across New Jersey in general at this time, see Lane, From Indian Trail From Indian Trail, 2005.12 Anne Royall, Anne Royall, Sketches Sketches, 239: On the speed between New York and Philadelphia, see NR NR, December 10, 1825.13 John Adams, Treasurer of New York Hospital, v. CV John Adams, Treasurer of New York Hospital, v. CV, June 27, 1826, file 182620, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. See also Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 17841831 Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 17841831, vol. 9 (New York: City of New York, 1917), for a reference to the Legislator's Legislator's owners requesting permission to extend the Market-field Street dock (the one shared by the two boats) on June 21, 1824; CV filed a petition opposing the request on July 1. The dock was constructed in 1808 by none other than AO; see AO to Peter Dobbs, August 23, 1808, Aaron Ogden Papers, Misc. Files, NYPL. owners requesting permission to extend the Market-field Street dock (the one shared by the two boats) on June 21, 1824; CV filed a petition opposing the request on July 1. The dock was constructed in 1808 by none other than AO; see AO to Peter Dobbs, August 23, 1808, Aaron Ogden Papers, Misc. Files, NYPL.14 EP EP, June 3, 1825.15 Andrew Burstein, Andrew Burstein, America's Jubilee America's Jubilee (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), 3, 814; A. Levasseur, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), 3, 814; A. Levasseur, Lafayette in America in 1824 and 1825; or, Journal of Travels in the United States Lafayette in America in 1824 and 1825; or, Journal of Travels in the United States, vol. 1 (New York: White, Gallagher & White, 1824), 810. For another fine study of this transition between generations, see Joyce Appleby Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000). (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).16 Benedict, 270. Benedict, 270.17 Burstein, Burstein, America's Jubilee America's Jubilee, 50. Cornelius Jeremiah was born in 1830, the first George Washington in 1832, the second (the first died in infancy) in 1839; Verley Archer, Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, Sophia Johnson Vanderbilt, and Their Descendents Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, Sophia Johnson Vanderbilt, and Their Descendents (Nashville: Vanderbilt University, 1972), iv. (Nashville: Vanderbilt University, 1972), iv.18 See the correspondence for 1824 and 1825 in GP; for examples of the Union Line recordkeeping, see the GP-R; see also the toll books of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike Company, folds. 9B and 10, box 3, NP. CVs testimony appears in See the correspondence for 1824 and 1825 in GP; for examples of the Union Line recordkeeping, see the GP-R; see also the toll books of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike Company, folds. 9B and 10, box 3, NP. CVs testimony appears in Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117, 16.19 On Gibbons's death, see the Account Book, 1826, GP; On Gibbons's death, see the Account Book, 1826, GP; EP EP, May 17, 1826. On the completion of the canal and subsequent celebrations, see Burrows & Wallace, 42932; Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood (17761825)," in Milton M. Klein, ed., Empire State: A History of New York Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 229305. On the deaths of Adams and Jefferson and the Jubilee celebrations, see Burstein, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 229305. On the deaths of Adams and Jefferson and the Jubilee celebrations, see Burstein, America's Jubilee America's Jubilee, 22886.20 Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117, 16, 323. For evidence of CVs ongoing management of Union Line business, see GP-R and the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike Company Toll Books, folds. 9B and 10, box 3, NP. For insight into WG, see WG to CV CV, March 14, 1832, WG to George Jenkins, June 30, 1827, WG to James Parker, October 26, 1827, WG to George Jenkins, October 30, 1827, WG to Elias Van Arsdale, November 15, 1827, WG to Robert L. Stevens, October 26, 1828, WG to Robert Baylies, November 23, 1828, WG to E. A. Stevens, November 30, 1828, WG to William Halsted, December 2, 1828, WG to Phineas Withington, January 30, 1829, WG to E. Hall, February 6, 1829, WG to Robert L. Livingston, February 18, 1829, WG to Thomas J. J. Lefevre, Matthew C. Jenkins, and James T. Watson, February 23, 1829, GP On Americans' still-emerging views of corporations, see Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 50, no. 1 (January 1993): 5184; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965.21 EP EP, August 27, 1825, June 2, 1826 (the description of the Emerald Emerald appears in a Union Line ad); Robert T. Thompson, appears in a Union Line ad); Robert T. Thompson, Colonel James Neilson: A Business Man of the Early Machine Age in New Jersey, 17841862 Colonel James Neilson: A Business Man of the Early Machine Age in New Jersey, 17841862 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1940), 26972; entries for August 1828, May 36, 1829, Farm Diary, box 14, NP. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1940), 26972; entries for August 1828, May 36, 1829, Farm Diary, box 14, NP.22 EP EP, November 6, 1826; SEP SEP, November 11, 1826; Entries 162 and 252, April 28, 1826, Abstracts Licenses Enrolled, July 1, 1825, to December 31, 1829, vol. 13041, New York Custom House Records, RG 41, NA.23 NYT NYT, November 13, 1877; NYW NYW, November 13, 1877. On CVs continuing obsession with horses, see WG to Samuel B. Parkman, March 16, 1827, GP.24 NYW NYW, November 13, 14, 1877.25 Alexis de Tocqueville (George Lawrence, trans.), Alexis de Tocqueville (George Lawrence, trans.), Democracy in America Democracy in America (New York: HarperCollins, 1988, orig. pub. 1966), vol. 2, part 3, chap. 6, 580. (New York: HarperCollins, 1988, orig. pub. 1966), vol. 2, part 3, chap. 6, 580.26 CV v. Patrick Rice CV v. Patrick Rice, November 26, 1827, file 1827-#1360, Court of Common Pleas, Patrick Rice v. CV Patrick Rice v. CV, November 26, 1827, file 1827-#1671, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.27 NBF NBF, July 29, 1829 (which shows Jacob Vanderbilt as captain of the Citizen); New-York and Richmond Free Press Citizen); New-York and Richmond Free Press, July 6, 1833; Entry 37, July 10, 1828, Enrollments, 18181821, vol. 2169, Perth Amboy Custom House Records, RG 41, NA subscriber list, New Brunswick Coal Association, Rariton Coal Mining Company, fold. 47, box 4, NP. For CVs dealings with William Gibbons, see citations from GP, next endnote.28 Lane, 52; Lane, 52; EP EP, July 8, 1828; NBF NBF, July 29, 1829; New-York and Richmond Free Press New-York and Richmond Free Press, July 6, 1833; Entry 37, July 10, 1828, Enrollments, 18181821, vol. 2169, Perth Amboy Custom House Records, RG 41, NA WG to CV, March 14, 1832, WG to George Jenkins, June 30, 1827, WG to James Parker, October 26, 1827, WG to George Jenkins, October 30, 1827, WG to Elias Van Arsdale, November 15, 1827, WG to Robert L. Stevens, October 26, 1828, WG to Robert Baylies, November 23, 1828, WG to E. A. Stevens, November 30, 1828, WG to William Halsted, December 2, 1828, WG to Phineas Withington, January 30, 1829, GP. On the view of corporations as trade-restricting organizations, see Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," and WG to E. Hall, February 6, 1829, WG to Robert L. Livingston, February 18, 1829, WG to Thomas J. J. Lefevre, Matthew C. Jenkins, and James T. Watson, February 23, 1829, GP. Lane, 49, repeats a tale popularized by Croffut, 34, that CV decided to leave the line to become an independent operator, to Gibbons's protest; when CV refused an offer to become his partner in the Union Line, Gibbons then sold the boats. For early renderings of this story, see HW HW, March 5, 1859, and MM MM, January 1865. The Gibbons Papers show there is no truth to it.29 Lane, 49; Lane, 49; NBF NBF, July 29, 1829; Trenton Emporium and True American Trenton Emporium and True American, July 11, 1829 (which appears to show that the Emerald Emerald, which had been sold and rebuilt, now operated on the Delaware). CV began to pay tolls on the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike for the Dispatch Line as early as May 1829; see the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike Company Toll Book, fold. 11, box 3, NP.30 The The Gazette Gazette story was quoted in the story was quoted in the SEP SEP, May 2, 1829. On the heavy-handed ways of captains and the shifty world of the waterfront, see a story about freelance porters in EP EP, September 23, 1824. CV did not move out of New Brunswick until some time in 1830, contrary to Lane's account; see the farm diary and James Neilson to George Able, January 28, 1830, fold. 17, box 3, NP. CV's ownership of bank stock is notable, a sign of his interest in investment opportunities and ease with banks and corporations; but it should be noted that New York was far in advance of the rest of the country in abandoning exclusive practices in both lending and stock ownership, with women and artisans trading shares and receiving loans (though bank chartering remained highly political). See Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," BHR BHR 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," JEH JEH 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Christopher Glaisek, "Vehicles of Privilege or Mobility? Banks in Providence, Rhode Island, During the Age of Jackson," 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Christopher Glaisek, "Vehicles of Privilege or Mobility? Banks in Providence, Rhode Island, During the Age of Jackson," BHR BHR 65, no. 3 (autumn 1991): 50227. 65, no. 3 (autumn 1991): 50227.31 David R. Johnson identifies 1830 as a turning point in the response to professional criminals, in David R. Johnson identifies 1830 as a turning point in the response to professional criminals, in Policing the Urban Underworld: The Impact of Crime on the Development of the American Police, 18001887 Policing the Urban Underworld: The Impact of Crime on the Development of the American Police, 18001887 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 1215, 413. Allan Stanley Horlick, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 1215, 413. Allan Stanley Horlick, Country Boys and Merchant Princes: The Social Control of Young Men in New York Country Boys and Merchant Princes: The Social Control of Young Men in New York (Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1975), 45, 26, 89. (Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1975), 45, 26, 89.32 Appleby, Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 12; William Austin, Peter Rugg, the Missing Man Peter Rugg, the Missing Man (Worcester: Franklin P. Rice, 1882, orig. pub. 1824), 523. (Worcester: Franklin P. Rice, 1882, orig. pub. 1824), 523.33 Royall, 2434; Patricia Cline Cohen, Royall, 2434; Patricia Cline Cohen, The Murder of Helen Jewett: The Life and Death of a Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century New York The Murder of Helen Jewett: The Life and Death of a Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century New York (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 62. On the expansion of New York, see Burrows & Wallace, 429528; Countryman, in Milton Klein, 295316; Eric Homberger, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 62. On the expansion of New York, see Burrows & Wallace, 429528; Countryman, in Milton Klein, 295316; Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of Nearly 400 Years of New York City's History The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of Nearly 400 Years of New York City's History (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 6872. (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 6872.34 Daniel Walker Howe, Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 52542. As L. Ray Gunn notes, 39, "Wherever its influence was felt, the transportation revolution literally remade society;" see also 19, 2356. See also Martin Bruegel, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 52542. As L. Ray Gunn notes, 39, "Wherever its influence was felt, the transportation revolution literally remade society;" see also 19, 2356. See also Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 159; Wood, 30547; (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 159; Wood, 30547; EP EP, May 17, 1826. For the "Yankee principle" quote, see New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art, September 20, 1845. An excellent summary of the impact of the transportation revolution on local economies, and the subsequent rise of manufacturing for national markets in New England, is provided by Douglass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1966), 15676. On the relative lack of immigration in the 1820s, see Tyler Anbinder, (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1966), 15676. On the relative lack of immigration in the 1820s, see Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001), 423, who notes, "Immigration increased enormously after 1830.... The foreign-born population expanded from 9 percent of the city's total in 1830 to 36 percent in 1845." (New York: Free Press, 2001), 423, who notes, "Immigration increased enormously after 1830.... The foreign-born population expanded from 9 percent of the city's total in 1830 to 36 percent in 1845."35 Bray Hammond, Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 145; William R. Taylor, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 145; William R. Taylor, Cavalier and Yankee: The Old South and American National Character Cavalier and Yankee: The Old South and American National Character (New York: George Braziller, 1961), 478; Trollope, 302, 352, 370. The emphasis on being "smart" is also noted by Clifford Browder, (New York: George Braziller, 1961), 478; Trollope, 302, 352, 370. The emphasis on being "smart" is also noted by Clifford Browder, The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times (Lexington, K.Y.: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), 389. On the New England migration to New York, see Edward K. Spann, (Lexington, K.Y.: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), 389. On the New England migration to New York, see Edward K. Spann, The New Metropolis: New York City, 18401857 The New Metropolis: New York City, 18401857 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 7; Horlick, 6972; and Dixon Ryan Fox, who observes in (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 7; Horlick, 6972; and Dixon Ryan Fox, who observes in Yankees and Yorkers Yankees and Yorkers (New York: New York University Press, 1940), 198, "It is safe to say that by 1830 the Yankee strain was becoming predominant in New York blood." On February 14, 1835, Philip Hone attended a meeting called to organize "a regular Knickerbocker society" to counter the influence of New Englanders; Hone, 1489. On the impact of the decline of traditional authority and new geographical mobility on culture, see (New York: New York University Press, 1940), 198, "It is safe to say that by 1830 the Yankee strain was becoming predominant in New York blood." On February 14, 1835, Philip Hone attended a meeting called to organize "a regular Knickerbocker society" to counter the influence of New Englanders; Hone, 1489. On the impact of the decline of traditional authority and new geographical mobility on culture, see Confidence Men Confidence Men, esp. 115, 1923. P. T. Barnum dedicated his book, The Life of P. T. Barnum, Written by Himself The Life of P. T. Barnum, Written by Himself (New York: Redfield, 1855), to "the universal Yankee nation, of which I am proud to be one." In understanding the rise of the Yankee stereotype, it is worth quoting Gunn again, 27, "Traditional community values declined and were replaced by those of the marketplace. Informal, face-to-face relationships gave way to more formal and impersonal modes of human interaction." (New York: Redfield, 1855), to "the universal Yankee nation, of which I am proud to be one." In understanding the rise of the Yankee stereotype, it is worth quoting Gunn again, 27, "Traditional community values declined and were replaced by those of the marketplace. Informal, face-to-face relationships gave way to more formal and impersonal modes of human interaction."36 Lane, 501; Lane, Lane, 501; Lane, Indian Trail Indian Trail, 196201; George Henry Preble, A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of Steam Navigation, 15431882 A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of Steam Navigation, 15431882 (Philadelphia: L. R. Hamersly 1883), 589; (Philadelphia: L. R. Hamersly 1883), 589; NBF NBF, July 29, 1829; Trenton Emporium and True American Trenton Emporium and True American, July 11, 1829; Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike Company Toll Book, fold. 11, box 3, NP; Abstracts of Licenses Enrolled, January 1, 1830, to September 30, 1832, vol. 13044, New York Custom House Records, RG 41, NA. The Bellona Bellona cost CV around $15,000; see WG to E. Hall, February 6, 1829, GP. cost CV around $15,000; see WG to E. Hall, February 6, 1829, GP.37 On the Stevens family, see in particular Dorothy Gregg's excellent study, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, On the Stevens family, see in particular Dorothy Gregg's excellent study, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 12052. Robert L. Stevens introduced, among other things, the skeleton beam, a false bow, a hull-stiffening truss, and the placement of engines on platforms over the water; see Morrison, 29, 379, 4851, 66. Hone visited Hoboken on May 21, 1831; Hone, 42. On the impending termination of the Citizen's Line, see WG to E. A. Stevens, November 30, 1828, GP. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 12052. Robert L. Stevens introduced, among other things, the skeleton beam, a false bow, a hull-stiffening truss, and the placement of engines on platforms over the water; see Morrison, 29, 379, 4851, 66. Hone visited Hoboken on May 21, 1831; Hone, 42. On the impending termination of the Citizen's Line, see WG to E. A. Stevens, November 30, 1828, GP.38 "The New Jersey Monopolies," "The New Jersey Monopolies," NAR NAR, April 1867, 42876; Lane, Indian Trail Indian Trail, 3024; Gregg, 1502. A fine survey is in Taylor, 7490, esp. 89 and 101. For contemporary discussions of the Camden & Amboy monopoly, see Workingman's Advocate Workingman's Advocate, August 16, 1834, and NYH NYH, April 1, 1837.39 Lane, 512; Lane, 512; HW HW, March 5, 1859.40 On WG'S anxiety about the railroad, see WG to Robert L. Stevens, January 16, 1829, and WG to Robert Baylies, February 2, 1829, GP Details of CVs previously unknown Sawpits venture appear in On WG'S anxiety about the railroad, see WG to Robert L. Stevens, January 16, 1829, and WG to Robert Baylies, February 2, 1829, GP Details of CVs previously unknown Sawpits venture appear in Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr., May 8, 1833, file BM 2163-H, Court of Chancery, NYCC; see also an advertisement in the EP EP, June 15, 1831, which notes that the Fanny Fanny also worked as a towboat, and also worked as a towboat, and SEP SEP, April 23, 1831. Contrary to Lane's account, CV moved to New York from New Brunswick between January and September 1830; see James Neilson to George Able, January 28, 1830, and Farm Diary, fold. 17, box 3, NP, and entry for September 19, 1830, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS. On the location of Sawpits, I am indebted to Alice C. Hudson, chief of the Map Division at the New York Public Library. See, for example, Joseph R. Bien, Atlas of Westchester County, New York Atlas of Westchester County, New York (New York: Julius Bien, 1893), plate 47. On CVs address at this time, see Croffut, 279. (New York: Julius Bien, 1893), plate 47. On CVs address at this time, see Croffut, 279.41 Frances Trollope, Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949, orig. pub. 1832), 301. Many historians discuss the commercialization of American society during this period, including Gunn, 2356; Wood, 32569; Maier, 5184; Appleby, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949, orig. pub. 1832), 301. Many historians discuss the commercialization of American society during this period, including Gunn, 2356; Wood, 32569; Maier, 5184; Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 5689.42 Entries for August 3, 11, September 17, 19, 21, October 13, 29, November 19, 1830, July 18, 1831, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS. On Captain Brooks's relationship to CV see Entries for August 3, 11, September 17, 19, 21, October 13, 29, November 19, 1830, July 18, 1831, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS. On Captain Brooks's relationship to CV see Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr., May 8, 1833, Court of Chancery, BM 2163-H, NYCC. It is possible that Peck was writing of a different Vanderbilt, as later he specified "Captain C. Vanderbilt;" however, the reference to Captain Brooks, among other hints, strongly suggests that he meant CV in these entries. Lorena S. Walsh discusses the evolving domestic life of middling Americans during this period, including diet, hygiene, and table manners, in "Consumer Behavior, Diet, and the Standard of Living in Late Colonial and Early Antebellum America, 17701840," in Robert E. Gallman and John Joseph Wallis, eds., American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 21761. On the new social dilemma of the untrustworthiness of one's fellow Americans, see especially (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 21761. On the new social dilemma of the untrustworthiness of one's fellow Americans, see especially Confidence Men Confidence Men, 3153.43 On Cornelius J. Vanderbilt's birth, see On Cornelius J. Vanderbilt's birth, see Richmond County Advance Richmond County Advance, April 15, 1882. On the children's lingering resentment, see, for example, NYS NYS, November 13, 1877; NYW NYW, November 13, 14, 1877; NYTr NYTr, March 28, 1878.44 On the life of Jackson, see Robert V. Remini, On the life of Jackson, see Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson The Life of Andrew Jackson (New York: Penguin, 1988). For an insightful account of Jackson's personality, see Andrew Burstein, (New York: Penguin, 1988). For an insightful account of Jackson's personality, see Andrew Burstein, The Passions of Andrew Jackson The Passions of Andrew Jackson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003). (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003).45 Entry for Entry for General Jackson General Jackson, November 2, 1830, Abstracts of Licenses Enrolled, January 1, 1830, to September 30, 1832, vol. 13044, New York Custom House Records, RG 41, NA Heyl, 2:978; EP EP, June 8, 1831; New York Commercial Advertiser New York Commercial Advertiser, June 20, 1831; SEP SEP, June 11, 1831; Lane, 535. Lane mistakenly reads the EP EP article to mean that Jacob Vanderbilt himself had run to Peekskill for two years, whereas the Custom House records show that he enrolled as the article to mean that Jacob Vanderbilt himself had run to Peekskill for two years, whereas the Custom House records show that he enrolled as the General Jackson's General Jackson's captain in November 1830. captain in November 1830.46 EP EP, June 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 1831; SEP SEP, June 11, 1831; New York Commercial Advertiser New York Commercial Advertiser, June 20, 1831; Workingman's Advocate Workingman's Advocate, June 18, 1831; entry for June 8, 1831, Hone, 423; New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art, September 20, 1845. For a useful summary of steamboat explosions during this era (including one on the Bellona Bellona, killing two, in 1825), see The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, 1835.47 SEP SEP, June 25, 1831.48 SEP SEP, April 23, 1831; Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr., May 8, 1833, Court of Chancery, BM 2163-H, NYCC.49 SEP SEP, April 23, June 25, 1831; Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr., May 8, 1833, Court of Chancery, BM 2163-H, NYCC; entry for Cinderella Cinderella, October 19, 1831, Abstracts of Licenses Enrolled, January 1, 1830, to September 30, 1832, vol. 13044, New York Custom House Records, RG 41, NA; Lane, 53; New York Gazette New York Gazette quoted in the quoted in the Workingman's Advocate Workingman's Advocate, September 10, 1831.50 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869; Henry Clews, Fifty Years in Wall Street Fifty Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 121; Smith, 131; Fowler, 127. It should be noted that this book will not cite the often-cited (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 121; Smith, 131; Fowler, 127. It should be noted that this book will not cite the often-cited Book of Daniel Drew Book of Daniel Drew, a 1910 publication which purports to be a secret autobiography. I agree with Drew's biographer, Clifford Browder, who argues it is a fraud; see Browder's The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986). The (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986). The Book of Daniel Drew Book of Daniel Drew was a hoax, and should be shunned by historians. Drew's son denounced the book on its publication, and declared that he had never seen his father write anything more than his signature; was a hoax, and should be shunned by historians. Drew's son denounced the book on its publication, and declared that he had never seen his father write anything more than his signature; NYW NYW, April 25, 1910.51 Walter Blair v. Daniel Drew Walter Blair v. Daniel Drew, March 10, 1831, file 1831-#87, Court of Common Pleas, and Fitz G. Halleck v. Daniel Drew Fitz G. Halleck v. Daniel Drew, March 15, 1820, file 1820-#479, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. Drew's overlordship of the livestock market is demonstrated by a report he sent to the New York Farmer New York Farmer for its 1831 issue. for its 1831 issue.52 HW HW, March 5, 1859; EP EP, August 12, 1831; Heyl, 3: 3378. On Drew, see Browder, esp. 329, and J. M'Clintock, "Daniel Drew, Esq. of New York," Ladies' Repository Ladies' Repository, September 1859. See entries for Water Witch Water Witch, September 20, 1831, May 26, 1832, and Fanny Fanny, June 14, 1831, Abstracts of Licenses Enrolled, January 1, 1830, to September 30, 1832, vol. 13044, New York Custom House Records, RG 41, NA.53 Charles S. De Forest v. Tunis Egbert, Francis Perkins, Preston Sheldon, and Helmus M. Wells Charles S. De Forest v. Tunis Egbert, Francis Perkins, Preston Sheldon, and Helmus M. Wells, March 5, 1852, box SI-68, Supreme Court, Richmond County, NYMA; entries for July 5, September 12, 15, 18, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS; NR NR, July 28, 1832; EP EP, January 17, May 1, 2, 1832; NYS NYS, November 14, 1877; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877.54 Entries for July 5, September 12, 15, 18, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS. Entries for July 5, September 12, 15, 18, Hiram Peck Diary, NYHS.55 Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr., May 8, 1833, Court of Chancery, BM 2163-H, NYCC; Heyl, 5: 2934.56 EP EP, June 12, 13, and 15, 1833; Trollope, 345; American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine, December 1833; Hone, 42. On CVs manner, see the testimony of Dr. Jared Linsly NYS NYS, November 14, 1877. On New York's new elite, see Burrows & Wallace, 45272.57 Ariel Ariel, April 16, 1831; NR NR, September 28, 1833. On December 18, 1832, Hone found it worth recording that the Camden & Amboy was complete; Hone, 85. On the early craze for railroads, see especially Taylor, 7494.58 John H. White Jr., John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Passenger Car The American Railroad Passenger Car (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 36, 8; (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 36, 8; EP EP, November 9, 11, 13; NR NR, September 28, November 16, 1833; Hazard's Register Hazard's Register, November 16, 1833; NYS NYS, November 14, 1877; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877. On early locomotives used by the Camden & Amboy (including, most famously, the John Bull), see John H. White Jr., American Locomotives: An Engineering History, 18301880 American Locomotives: An Engineering History, 18301880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968). (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968).

Four Nemesis Nemesis 1 In addition to other sources cited below, see In addition to other sources cited below, see NYT NYT, August 7, 1876.2 NYW NYW, November 14, 15, 1877; NYS NYS, November 14, 15, 1877.3 Daniel Walker Howe, Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 37395; see also Charles Sellers, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 37395; see also Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151846 The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 31332. Historians long debated whether Jackson and Jacksonian Democrats favored entrepreneurial capitalism or desired a primitive agrarian economy. The Consensus School claimed that Americans across the political spectrum were essentially in agreement that a market economy was good, as best argued by Bray Hammond in the still-valuable (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 31332. Historians long debated whether Jackson and Jacksonian Democrats favored entrepreneurial capitalism or desired a primitive agrarian economy. The Consensus School claimed that Americans across the political spectrum were essentially in agreement that a market economy was good, as best argued by Bray Hammond in the still-valuable Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 326457. Other scholars from the same era depicted Jackson as a forefather of New Deal policies; see especially Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 326457. Other scholars from the same era depicted Jackson as a forefather of New Deal policies; see especially Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Jackson The Age of Jackson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1950), 74131. A later wave of scholarship claimed that Jacksonians resisted the market economy; see especially John Ashworth Sellers, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1950), 74131. A later wave of scholarship claimed that Jacksonians resisted the market economy; see especially John Ashworth Sellers, "Agrarians" and "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 18371846 "Agrarians" and "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 18371846 (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1983), and, with more specific focus, Sean Wilentz, (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1983), and, with more specific focus, Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984). More recent scholarship has to some degree returned to the view that Jacksonians favored a market economy, though with greater subtlety than the Consensus School. See in particular Michael J. Connolly, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984). More recent scholarship has to some degree returned to the view that Jacksonians favored a market economy, though with greater subtlety than the Consensus School. See in particular Michael J. Connolly, Capitalism, Politics, and Railroads in Jacksonian New England Capitalism, Politics, and Railroads in Jacksonian New England (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), as well as John M. McFaul, (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), as well as John M. McFaul, The Politics of Jacksonian Finance The Politics of Jacksonian Finance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 115, and Peter Temin, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 115, and Peter Temin, The Jacksonian Economy The Jacksonian Economy (New York: Norton, 1969). I am very much in agreement with Howe, 364, who writes, "Economic enterprise generally became controversial only when government became involved." For sources that document Jackson's financial policies, and his personal hostility to banking, see Herman E. Krooss, ed., (New York: Norton, 1969). I am very much in agreement with Howe, 364, who writes, "Economic enterprise generally became controversial only when government became involved." For sources that document Jackson's financial policies, and his personal hostility to banking, see Herman E. Krooss, ed., Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1965), 98293, 1055. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1965), 98293, 1055.4 The literature on Jacksonianism is vast. Unfortunately, even some of the best historians display a tendency to frown on Jacksonians as regressive or reactionary; see, for example, John Lauritz Larson's otherwise superb discussion in The literature on Jacksonianism is vast. Unfortunately, even some of the best historians display a tendency to frown on Jacksonians as regressive or reactionary; see, for example, John Lauritz Larson's otherwise superb discussion in Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 14993, esp. 150, 192. In my claim that both Jacksonians and anti-Jacksonians favored markets, entrepreneur-ship, and development, I am in agreement with Howe, esp. 364, 501, and Connolly, 14. James L. Huston, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 14993, esp. 150, 192. In my claim that both Jacksonians and anti-Jacksonians favored markets, entrepreneur-ship, and development, I am in agreement with Howe, esp. 364, 501, and Connolly, 14. James L. Huston, Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 83151, offers a very insightful discussion of American economic culture (the "republican theory of wealth distribution," as he calls it), stressing that the antebellum economy was dominated by horizontal expansion and small producers, despite the attention given to industrialization. Sean Wilentz, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 83151, offers a very insightful discussion of American economic culture (the "republican theory of wealth distribution," as he calls it), stressing that the antebellum economy was dominated by horizontal expansion and small producers, despite the attention given to industrialization. Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 438, argues, "The Jacksonians opposed large government not because it burdened business but because they believed it was a creature of the monied and privileged few.... They aimed not to liberate private business interests from a corrupt government, but to liberate democratic government from the corrupting power of exclusive private business interests." This was unquestionably true, but they clearly wished to liberate individuals as economic actors from the unfair advantages of the wealthy "aristocracy;" laissez-faire was both an economic means to a political end and a desired economic end state. One of the most influential books to this day remains Marvin Meyers's (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 438, argues, "The Jacksonians opposed large government not because it burdened business but because they believed it was a creature of the monied and privileged few.... They aimed not to liberate private business interests from a corrupt government, but to liberate democratic government from the corrupting power of exclusive private business interests." This was unquestionably true, but they clearly wished to liberate individuals as economic actors from the unfair advantages of the wealthy "aristocracy;" laissez-faire was both an economic means to a political end and a desired economic end state. One of the most influential books to this day remains Marvin Meyers's The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics and Belief The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics and Belief (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960), which argues, 715, that the Whigs and the Democrats were "fraternal twins" in their faith in the market economy, but that Democrats conjured up "moral plots" to rally their followers. I believe that Meyers, as insightful as he is, fails to appreciate how seriously Jacksonians took the threat that government action might give rise to a privileged class. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960), which argues, 715, that the Whigs and the Democrats were "fraternal twins" in their faith in the market economy, but that Democrats conjured up "moral plots" to rally their followers. I believe that Meyers, as insightful as he is, fails to appreciate how seriously Jacksonians took the threat that government action might give rise to a privileged class.5 "President Andrew Jackson's Veto Message Regarding the Bank of the United States, July 10, 1832," in "President Andrew Jackson's Veto Message Regarding the Bank of the United States, July 10, 1832," in A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the President A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the President (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1897); Daniel Webster in Krooss, 7878. (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1897); Daniel Webster in Krooss, 7878.6 Sellers, 324, 336; Huston, 134; William M. Gouge, Sellers, 324, 336; Huston, 134; William M. Gouge, A Short History of Paper Money and Banking in the United States A Short History of Paper Money and Banking in the United States (Philadelphia: T. W. Ustick, 1833), 42, 8334; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," (Philadelphia: T. W. Ustick, 1833), 42, 8334; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. For insight into the Jacksonian hatred of the artificial, see Lawrence Frederick Kohl, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. For insight into the Jacksonian hatred of the artificial, see Lawrence Frederick Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 358. Wilentz, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 358. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy Rise of American Democracy, 4401, argues that hard-money Jacksonians were emphatically not economic primitivists who "aimed at turning back the clock," and often were as sophisticated as their opponents. There is a great deal of truth to this, yet I believe that Wilentz downplays their discomfort with economic abstractions. Even corporate figures had difficulty grasping them, as will be seen in later chapters of this book. However, I agree with Wilentz's argument, 511, 513, that Jacksonians envisioned a commercial economy of agricultural small producers, and distrusted speculation and credit.7 EP EP, August 28, 1834; James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970), 3043. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970), 3043.8 Huston, 134, 2515; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," Huston, 134, 2515; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 50, no. 1 (January 1993): 5184; EP EP, August 28, 1834; Gouge, 412. Ashworth notes correctly that Democrats embraced self-interest, Adam Smith, and laissez-faire, but argues incorrectly, in my view, that they could be summarized as "anti-entrepreneurial" and agrarian (e.g., 21, 51). Naomi R. Lamoreaux shows (as my own research does as well) that early corporations only slowly took on the characteristics cited here; see "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History." The abstraction of economic reality and the cultural shock it induced is one of my central themes. On this topic, see Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Random House, 1973), 4146, who discusses "a new mystery, a new unintelligibility" of corporations-"this new metaphysic of property," as he calls it. Boorstin, however, focuses on the late nineteenth century, whereas I believe this was felt decades earlier. Joseph A. Schumpeter discusses the "evaporation of the substance of property" in (New York: Random House, 1973), 4146, who discusses "a new mystery, a new unintelligibility" of corporations-"this new metaphysic of property," as he calls it. Boorstin, however, focuses on the late nineteenth century, whereas I believe this was felt decades earlier. Joseph A. Schumpeter discusses the "evaporation of the substance of property" in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper &Brothers, 1942), 1568. (New York: Harper &Brothers, 1942), 1568.9 Krooss, 10267; Huston, 252; A. B. Johnson, "Advantages and Disadvantages of Private Corporations," Krooss, 10267; Huston, 252; A. B. Johnson, "Advantages and Disadvantages of Private Corporations," MM MM, December 1850, 62631 (italics added); Gouge, 42. Taylor, 242, offers an excellent brief discussion of the controversy over corporations, as does Kohl, 66, 96, and Ashworth, 79. The law also insisted on the centrality of the persons behind corporations; see Mark, "Personification." Meyers, 11, astutely notes, "Americans were boldly liberal in economic affairs, out of conviction and appetite combined, and moved their world in the direction of modern capitalism. But they were not inwardly prepared for the grinding uncertainties, the shocking changes, the complexity and indirection of the new economic ways."10 Burrows & Wallace, 5715; Burrows & Wallace, 5715; EP EP, November 13, 1833; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; Sellers, 3327; Hone, 1102. See also NR NR, November 2, 1833.11 Howe, Howe, What Hath God Wrought What Hath God Wrought, 53736, esp. 58284; Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), esp. 920, 181; Amy Bridges, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), esp. 920, 181; Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebelleum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics A City in the Republic: Antebelleum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1924; Meyers, 125; Michael A. Bernstein, "Northern Labor Finds a Southern Champion: A Note on the Radical Democracy," in William Pencak and Conrad Edick Wright, eds., (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1924; Meyers, 125; Michael A. Bernstein, "Northern Labor Finds a Southern Champion: A Note on the Radical Democracy," in William Pencak and Conrad Edick Wright, eds., New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989), 14767. As L. Ray Gunn notes in "The Crisis of Distributive Politics: The Debate over State Debts and Development Policy in New York, 18371842," Pencak and Wright, 168201, the Democratic Albany Regency made active use of the state to promote development. Ashworth offers an astute interpretation of the Whig orientation, 5468, and the Federalist legacy, 1178. My view that many Whigs were suspicious of competition will be developed over the succeeding chapters. (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989), 14767. As L. Ray Gunn notes in "The Crisis of Distributive Politics: The Debate over State Debts and Development Policy in New York, 18371842," Pencak and Wright, 168201, the Democratic Albany Regency made active use of the state to promote development. Ashworth offers an astute interpretation of the Whig orientation, 5468, and the Federalist legacy, 1178. My view that many Whigs were suspicious of competition will be developed over the succeeding chapters.12 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; EP EP, August 30, 1834, February 10, 1837. On CVs address at this time, see Croffut, 279.13 EP EP, August 30, 1834, September 10, 1833; Albany Argus Albany Argus, March 15, 1834; Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr. and Others Charles Hoyt v. John Brooks Jr. and Others, May 8, 1833, file BM 2163-H, Court of Chancery, and James Ingham and James Leslie v. CV James Ingham and James Leslie v. CV, December 15, 1834, file 1834-#756, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. On the Water Witch Water Witch, see also New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art New York Illustrated Magazine of Literature and Art, September 20, 1845.14 Robert Stevens's brother, John C. Stevens, remained a member of the association. See Articles of Agreement between Robert L. Stevens and John C. Stevens, Anthony N. Hoffman, et al., December 1, 1832, fold. 13, box 34, Stevens Family Papers, New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, N.J. The agreement was made with Anthony N. Hoffman, Michael Van Beuren, Smith Cutter, James Mason (owners of the Robert Stevens's brother, John C. Stevens, remained a member of the association. See Articles of Agreement between Robert L. Stevens and John C. Stevens, Anthony N. Hoffman, et al., December 1, 1832, fold. 13, box 34, Stevens Family Papers, New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, N.J. The agreement was made with Anthony N. Hoffman, Michael Van Beuren, Smith Cutter, James Mason (owners of the Ohio Ohio, the Constellation Constellation, and the Constitution) Constitution), Alsop Weed, Griffith P. Griffith, Le Grande Cannon (owners of the Erie Erie and the and the Champlain) Champlain), James A. Stevens (owner of the Albany), and Robert Dunlop (owner of the DeWitt Clinton) DeWitt Clinton).15 Albany Argus Albany Argus, March 15, 1834, November 23, 1835, April 16, 1836; Gunn, 30; Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 15963; Morrison, 46, 68. CVs account appeared in a front-page advertisement in (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 15963; Morrison, 46, 68. CVs account appeared in a front-page advertisement in EP EP, August 30, 1834.16 EP EP, August 30, 1834.17 EP EP, August 28 and 30, 1834. On Leggett's new control of the Post Post and the Locofoco faction of Democrats with which he was aligned, see Burrows & Wallace, 51822, 6069, 6215; Wilentz, and the Locofoco faction of Democrats with which he was aligned, see Burrows & Wallace, 51822, 6069, 6215; Wilentz, Chants Democratic Chants Democratic, 145, 235; Ashworth, 946. Connolly notes in his introduction that Jacksonian Democrats distinguished between enterprising businessmen, whom they favored, and "capitalists," another word for stockjobbing speculators, whom they condemned.18 Albany Argus Albany Argus, July 17, 1834; New-York Mirror New-York Mirror, September 27, 1834.19 Albany Argus Albany Argus, July 17, September 2, 1834; New-York Mirror New-York Mirror, September 27, 1834; entries for September 14, 16, 1834, Hone ms.; Heyl, 5:2035. Morrison, 68, reports that racing steamboats made "flying landings," putting passengers in a boat attached to a line and then sheering off, giving the passengers seconds to get out of the boat at the dock before the line yanked it away. Hone's description casts doubt on this, though landings were clearly rushed. The Albany Argus Albany Argus, October 23, 1835, reported that the Champlain Champlain, on the fastest-ever trip between New York and Albany, lost an average of two minutes for each landing, enough for a hurried stop at a pier.20 Albany Argus Albany Argus, September 2, 3, 1834; Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal, November 7, 1834, March 27, 1835.21 NYH NYH, May 3, 1839; NYT NYT, February 9, 1859. As will be seen, Daniel Drew adopted the People's Line name in June 1835 and began his own attack on the monopoly, eventually becoming its chief. See Cincinnati Mirror Cincinnati Mirror, May 16, 1835, and advertisements in the Albany Argus Albany Argus and and Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal through 1835. through 1835.22 EP EP, June 4, 1835, January 20, 1840; NYTr NYTr, March 7, 1878; New York Review New York Review, July 1838.23 EP EP, June 4, 1835, January 20, 1840; NYTr NYTr, March 7, 1878; New York Review New York Review, July 1838; Heyl, 5:1679. Bishop and Simonson's shipyard was at the foot of Walnut Street; John H. Morrison, History of the New York Ship Yards History of the New York Ship Yards (New York: Sametz & Co., 1909), 59. For Charles Simonson's marriage to Mary Vanderbilt, Cornelius's oldest sister, see (New York: Sametz & Co., 1909), 59. For Charles Simonson's marriage to Mary Vanderbilt, Cornelius's oldest sister, see Staten Island Church Records Staten Island Church Records, 174. For an excellent account of steamboat and steamship construction, and an explanation of "hog" and "sag" problems, see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 1056. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 1056.24 The most forceful advocate of the notion that cotton drove the American economy is Douglass C. North, The most forceful advocate of the notion that cotton drove the American economy is Douglass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), 6674; see also 102, 1137, 1229 (quote on 129). On the "cotton triangle" between New York, Southern ports, and Europe, see Philip S. Foner, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), 6674; see also 102, 1137, 1229 (quote on 129). On the "cotton triangle" between New York, Southern ports, and Europe, see Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 614; Albion, 95121. Wilentz, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 614; Albion, 95121. Wilentz, Chants Democratic Chants Democratic, notes, 108, "the rising dominance of antebellum New York over American trade and finance is still staggering to contemplate."25 For a capsule history of the rise of manufacturing in Massachusetts, see Kinley J. Brauer, For a capsule history of the rise of manufacturing in Massachusetts, see Kinley J. Brauer, Cotton Versus Conscience: Massachusetts Whig Politics and Southwestern Expansion, 18431848 Cotton Versus Conscience: Massachusetts Whig Politics and Southwestern Expansion, 18431848 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967), 811, and Taylor, 22949. Banker William D. Lewis of Philadelphia wrote to James N. Paige and James K. Mills, two commission merchants of Boston, December 1839, "The South & West require a certain quantity of your fabrics. The two greatest points of distribution are New York & this city," fold. 6, box 2, WDLP. New York also took large shipments of boots, shoes, and hats from New England; on March 18, 1842, WmC wrote to COH that "a large proportion of the freight is shoes and straw bonnets," fol. vol. 2, CFP. On the rise of finished textile manufacturing in New York, see Wilentz, (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967), 811, and Taylor, 22949. Banker William D. Lewis of Philadelphia wrote to James N. Paige and James K. Mills, two commission merchants of Boston, December 1839, "The South & West require a certain quantity of your fabrics. The two greatest points of distribution are New York & this city," fold. 6, box 2, WDLP. New York also took large shipments of boots, shoes, and hats from New England; on March 18, 1842, WmC wrote to COH that "a large proportion of the freight is shoes and straw bonnets," fol. vol. 2, CFP. On the rise of finished textile manufacturing in New York, see Wilentz, Chants Democratic Chants Democratic, 10716.26 Larson, 2259. For more on early railroads and government attitudes toward them, see Taylor, 72101. Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury note that, as of 1850, only forty-one factories had a capitalization of $250,000 or more, though railroads routinely were capitalized at over a million dollars; "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, ed., Larson, 2259. For more on early railroads and government attitudes toward them, see Taylor, 72101. Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury note that, as of 1850, only forty-one factories had a capitalization of $250,000 or more, though railroads routinely were capitalized at over a million dollars; "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, ed., The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12830. See also Edward Chase Kirkland, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12830. See also Edward Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 1114, 22358; MM MM, December 1846.27 Entry for April 11, 1836, Hone ms. Kirkland notes, 244, that in 1835, when the Boston & Providence was completed, four of its seven directors (including its president) were New Yorkers, and that 97 percent of its stock was held outside of Boston, most of it in New York. Hone noted in his diary on June 17, 1835, "A majority of the board are citizens of New York;" Hone ms. For details of the specie and bank bills carried by a typical Long Island steamboat, see a report on the loss of the Entry for April 11, 1836, Hone ms. Kirkland notes, 244, that in 1835, when the Boston & Providence was completed, four of its seven directors (including its president) were New Yorkers, and that 97 percent of its stock was held outside of Boston, most of it in New York. Hone noted in his diary on June 17, 1835, "A majority of the board are citizens of New York;" Hone ms. For details of the specie and bank bills carried by a typical Long Island steamboat, see a report on the loss of the Lexington Lexington in the in the EP EP, January 18, 1840, and stories about thefts, ProvJ ProvJ, September 21, 1836, and NYH NYH, October 3, 1836.28 Kirkland, 1216, 244; Morrison, 270; Kirkland, 1216, 244; Morrison, 270; ProvJ ProvJ, June 16, 1836; EP EP, January 20, 21, 24, 1840; Heyl, 2:139, 5:1679. On the cost of the Lexington Lexington, see also CtP to WDL, April 22, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP.29 EP EP, June 4, 1835, January 21, 1840; New York Review New York Review, July 1838; Kirkland, 1:23, 244; Morrison, 270; Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation in Explanation of their Proceedings in Relation to Steamboats Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation in Explanation of their Proceedings in Relation to Steamboats (Boston: John H. Eastburn, 1838); (Boston: John H. Eastburn, 1838); A Replication to a "Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation in Explanation of their Proceedings in Relation to Steamboats" A Replication to a "Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation in Explanation of their Proceedings in Relation to Steamboats" (n.p., n.d.). To put the (n.p., n.d.). To put the Lexington's Lexington's speed in context, see Taylor, 71, who notes, "The average rate of speed even of the faster steamboats before the Civil War was seldom greater than fifteen miles an hour." speed in context, see Taylor, 71, who notes, "The average rate of speed even of the faster steamboats before the Civil War was seldom greater than fifteen miles an hour."30 Entry for June 17, 1835, Hone ms.; Kirkland, 1:234, 2435; Entry for June 17, 1835, Hone ms.; Kirkland, 1:234, 2435; BE BE, April 21, 1842. The Lexington Lexington was also listed as a connecting boat to the railroad to Boston from New York in J. H. Colton, was also listed as a connecting boat to the railroad to Boston from New York in J. H. Colton, Guide to Burr's Map of New York and Steam-Boat, Stage, Railroad, and Canal Register, &c., &c., &c., for the year 1835 Guide to Burr's Map of New York and Steam-Boat, Stage, Railroad, and Canal Register, &c., &c., &c., for the year 1835 (New York: J. H. Colton, 1835), 33. On the rise of Connecticut as a manufacturing state, see (New York: J. H. Colton, 1835), 33. On the rise of Connecticut as a manufacturing state, see MM MM, December 1846. On fares, see ProvJ ProvJ, April 8, May 28, October 4, 1836.31 ProvJ ProvJ, July 2, 1836.32 EP EP, January 21, 1840; ProvJ ProvJ, July 2, 1836; Charles Dickens, American Notes for General Circulation American Notes for General Circulation (New York: Penguin, 2000, orig. pub. 1842), 88. On interior accommodations of steamboats, see Kirkland, 1:24; (New York: Penguin, 2000, orig. pub. 1842), 88. On interior accommodations of steamboats, see Kirkland, 1:24; ProvJ ProvJ, October 13, 1836; and entry for April 11, 1836, Hone ms.33 ProvJ ProvJ, June 15, 1836; JoC JoC, October 25, 1837; WmC to COH, July 31, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP; Edwin L. Dunbaugh, Night Boat to New England, 18151900 Night Boat to New England, 18151900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 289, 412; (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 289, 412; Nestor Houghton v. CV Nestor Houghton v. CV, August 10, 1837, file BM V016-H, Court of Chancery, NYCC. The $74,000 price was equal to the net profits of the ferry for the preceding four and a half years. The purchasers, John H. Smith, Edward Kellogg, George Gault, Nestor Houghton, George Lock-wood, Robert T. Haws, and Ephraim Corning, paid $10,000 in cash, plus six-, ten-, and eighteen-month promissory notes at 6 percent interest. CV agreed to supervise the installation of new boilers, and received free passage for himself and his family on the boats. The agreement specified that the boats could not be run on the North River above New York, where CV had a line, but CV might have intended to prevent another conflict with the Hudson River monopoly.34 ProvJ ProvJ, June 15, September 21, October 3, 4, 12, 13, 1836, March 20, 22, 1837; EP EP, March 21, 1837.35 Entry for April 11, 1836, Hone ms.; Entry for April 11, 1836, Hone ms.; New-York Mirror New-York Mirror, November 12, 1836; ProvJ ProvJ, July 14, 1837.36 CV to JWR, November 1836, RWG; Kirkland, 2769. CV to JWR, November 1836, RWG; Kirkland, 2769.37 ProvJ ProvJ, January 23, 1837; JWR to CV CV, January 24, 1837, CV to JWR, January 30, 1837, CV to John Whipple, April 8, 1837, RWG; Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation; A Replication; Statement by the Boston and Providence Rail Road Corporation; A Replication; Kirkland, 2769. Kirkland, 2769.38 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYS NYS, November 13, 14, 1877; NYTr NYTr, March 28, 1878. On CVs new address, see the return address on CV to JWR, November 1836, RWG. It was then a respectable neighborhood, despite its proximity to Corlears Hook; see NYT NYT, January 11, 1886.39 Hone, 1859; Burrows & Wallace, 5968. Hone, 1859; Burrows & Wallace, 5968.40 Burrows & Wallace, 598602; Peter Temin, "The Jacksonian Economy," in Edward Pessen, ed., Burrows & Wallace, 598602; Peter Temin, "The Jacksonian Economy," in Edward Pessen, ed., The Many-Faceted Jacksonian Era: New Interpretations The Many-Faceted Jacksonian Era: New Interpretations (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), 10213; North, 198201; Sellers, 338. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), 10213; North, 198201; Sellers, 338.41 NYH NYH, October 5, 1836; Burrows & Wallace, 52941; Patricia Cline Cohen, The Murder of Helen Jewett: The Life and Death of a Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century New York The Murder of Helen Jewett: The Life and Death of a Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century New York (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 61, 66, 1045. A reference to businessmen playing whist about this time appears in J. R. Ingersoll to WDL, May 7, 1841, fold. 2, box 1, WDLP. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 61, 66, 1045. A reference to businessmen playing whist about this time appears in J. R. Ingersoll to WDL, May 7, 1841, fold. 2, box 1, WDLP.42 Burrows & Wallace, 5679; Walter Licht, Burrows & Wallace, 5679; Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 9; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 9; James Guyon and CV v. Moulton Bullock, James W. Otis, and Jonathan Prescott Hall James Guyon and CV v. Moulton Bullock, James W. Otis, and Jonathan Prescott Hall, March 16, 1838, file BM 1404-G, CV v. John Martineau and Eliza, His Wife, and Anna B. Cook, Executrix of Richard M. Cook, Deceased CV v. John Martineau and Eliza, His Wife, and Anna B. Cook, Executrix of Richard M. Cook, Deceased, September 13, 1839, file D CH 100-V, CV v. John W. DeGrauw and Jane, His Wife, Walter N. DeGrauw, John J. Stephens, and Others CV v. John W. DeGrauw and Jane, His Wife, Walter N. DeGrauw, John J. Stephens, and Others, May 30, 1839, file D CH 104-V, Court of Chancery, NYCC. I speculate that he made other loans since these are only known because the borrowers defaulted; repaid loans do not appear in surviving records.43 Sellers, 344; Hone, 228; North, 198201. Temin sharply disputes the impact of Jackson's policies, though they undoubtedly contributed to the atmosphere of uncertainty. Sellers, 344; Hone, 228; North, 198201. Temin sharply disputes the impact of Jackson's policies, though they undoubtedly contributed to the atmosphere of uncertainty.44 NYS NYS, November 13, 1877; NYT NYT, November 14, 1877; JWR to CV, January 24, 1837, RWG.45 Nestor Houghton v. CV Nestor Houghton v. CV, August 10, 1837, file BM V016-H, James Guyon and CV v. Moulton Bullock, James W. Otis, and Jonathan Prescott Hall James Guyon and CV v. Moulton Bullock, James W. Otis, and Jonathan Prescott Hall, March 16, 1838, file BM 1404-G, CV v. John Martineau and Eliza, His Wife, and Anna B. Cook, Executrix of Richard M. Cook, Deceased CV v. John Martineau and Eliza, His Wife, and Anna B. Cook, Executrix of Richard M. Cook, Deceased, September 13, 1839, file D CH 100-V CV v. John W. DeGrauw and Jane, His Wife, Walter N. DeGrauw, John J. Stephens, and Others CV v. John W. DeGrauw and Jane, His Wife, Walter N. DeGrauw, John J. Stephens, and Others, May 30, 1839, file D CH 104-V, Court of Chancery, NYCC; Hone, 247.46 ProvJ ProvJ, March 17, 20, 22, 1837; EP EP, March 21, 1837; NYH NYH, April 1, 1837; Hone, 250.47 Strong, 1:167. Strong, 1:167.48 NYH NYH, April 1, 1837; Hone, 256; Taylor, 3415.49 The The New York Courier and Enquirer New York Courier and Enquirer noted, as quoted in the noted, as quoted in the ProvJ ProvJ, May 13, 1837, "The banks will not will not discount under present circumstances freely to good and safe men. They are afraid of each other.... Nearly every transaction is for cash." CV accumulated specie because it appears that passengers largely paid in coin. In part, this was because of his low fares-most banknotes were for denominations higher than a dollar (though "shinplasters," small-denomination banknotes, did proliferate during the panic). Comstock, it should be noted, complained that the Transportation Company's clerks were accepting too much "bad money" (WmC to COH, July 17, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP), but coin seems to have been demanded in most cases. discount under present circumstances freely to good and safe men. They are afraid of each other.... Nearly every transaction is for cash." CV accumulated specie because it appears that passengers largely paid in coin. In part, this was because of his low fares-most banknotes were for denominations higher than a dollar (though "shinplasters," small-denomination banknotes, did proliferate during the panic). Comstock, it should be noted, complained that the Transportation Company's clerks were accepting too much "bad money" (WmC to COH, July 17, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP), but coin seems to have been demanded in most cases. NYH NYH, June 13, 1845, observed that "railroad tickets... must be paid in specie."50 For Allen's new office, see an ad in For Allen's new office, see an ad in NYH NYH, July 1, 1837. For details on his management of daily routine, see a lawsuit filed by a merchant who regularly shipped goods to customers in Connecticut by way of the Cleopatra, Joseph Tobey v. CV Cleopatra, Joseph Tobey v. CV, October 15, 1839, file 18391291, Superior Court, NYCC.51 NYT NYT, February 6, 1910; LW Dictation.52 NYH NYH, July 1, 1837; EP EP, July 15, 1837.53 JoC JoC, October 25, 1837; Norfolk Herald Norfolk Herald quoted in quoted in JoC JoC, November 30, 1837. Phillpot Woolfe was fare collector for the Staten Island Ferry in 1838; testifying in court in 1847 about Oorandates Mauran, the company president, he said, "We always understood him to be the general agent as well as the president. That is what we call 'Commodore.' His word was will there." See Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company, July 17, 1848, file 18481238, Superior Court, NYCC. JWR to CV CV, January 24, 1837, RWG. Elihu Bunker, a pioneer in the steamboat trade, was given the title "Commodore" in the press; ProvJ ProvJ, June 15, 1836; Moses Beach, Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City, 3rd ed. (New York: New York Sun, 1842), 5.

Five Sole Control Sole Control 1 NYS NYS, March 9, 1878; NYTr NYTr, June 26, 1878; NYT NYT, March 9, 1878. The descriptions of WHV and CJV appear in the NYS NYS, November 15, 1877.2 Alfred D. Chandler Jr., "Patterns of American Railroad Finance, 183050," Alfred D. Chandler Jr., "Patterns of American Railroad Finance, 183050," BHR BHR 28, no. 3 (September 1954): 24863; Stonington Reports, 12, 22; WGM, Memorandum of Interview with CV in Relation to Steamers, November 14, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP; Edward Chase Kirkland, 28, no. 3 (September 1954): 24863; Stonington Reports, 12, 22; WGM, Memorandum of Interview with CV in Relation to Steamers, November 14, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP; Edward Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 2468, 258. On early stockholder anxiety over the company's debts, see Alexander Hamilton to WDL, January 1, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP. Hone took the Stonington soon after its opening, and highly approved of it; Hone, 358. Lane, who has a weakness for repeating unsubstantiated anecdotes, includes the claim that CV hated railroads, 589, 73, following Croffut, 71.3 EP EP, January 22, 1840; JoC JoC, November 30, 1837.4 NYS NYS, November 13, 1877, December 9, 1885; NYW NYW, November 14, 15, 1877; LW Dictation.5 NYTr NYTr, December 9, 1885; Morrison, 54; Clifford Browder, The Money Game in Old New York The Money Game in Old New York (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), 424. Two letters clearly show that Drew had become a dominant figure in the Hudson River monopoly: Jonas C. Heartt [Toy] to CtP, September 10, 1840, CtP to Jonas C. Heart, September 12, 1840, fold. 8, box 2, WDLP. I am making a judgment that CV and Drew made an agreement to invest in each other's businesses based on evidence relating to numerous shared enterprises over the next three decades, as will be shown below. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), 424. Two letters clearly show that Drew had become a dominant figure in the Hudson River monopoly: Jonas C. Heartt [Toy] to CtP, September 10, 1840, CtP to Jonas C. Heart, September 12, 1840, fold. 8, box 2, WDLP. I am making a judgment that CV and Drew made an agreement to invest in each other's businesses based on evidence relating to numerous shared enterprises over the next three decades, as will be shown below.6 NR NR, November 2, 1833; New York Courier and Enquirer New York Courier and Enquirer quoted in quoted in ProvJ ProvJ, May 13, 1837; New-Yorker New-Yorker, March 31, 1838; NYS NYS, December 9, 1885; NYTr NYTr, December 9, 1885. For detailed examples of the sort of financial transactions that Drew, Robinson & Co. engaged in, see Daniel Drew v. Bates Cooke Daniel Drew v. Bates Cooke, September 8, 1840, file BM 1233-D, Court of Chancery (a case involving Drew's demand that the state of New York's safety fund sell bonds in order to redeem notes of the Millers' Bank), Isaac Schuyler v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson & Co Isaac Schuyler v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson & Co., October 27, 1841, file BM S-476, Court of Chancery, Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen, March 20, 1848, file 1848-#951A, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. CVs investment in the People's Line, and the relationship between the various steamboat proprietors on the Hudson, is detailed in Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 7, 1850, file PL-1850-P-3, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. When the People's Line reorganized as a joint-stock association in 1843, CV held $11,500 out of $360,000 in the company's shares; Drew owned $108,500. Though this case does not confirm CVs earlier involvement, circumstantial evidence points to his participation as early as 1838. For additional commentary on William's place in Drew, Robinson & Co., see a letter from CJV to CV, August 25, 1874, quoted in New York Sunday News New York Sunday News, January 6, 1878, Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL.7 Boston Advertiser and Patriot Boston Advertiser and Patriot, quoted in Maine Farmer Maine Farmer, July 31, 1838; Frederick Gardiner to Charles Gill, September 6, 1838, Rare Book and Manuscript Collections, Carl A. Kroch Library, Cornell University.8 CtP to WDL, March 26, 30, April 1, 4, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP. CtP to WDL, March 26, 30, April 1, 4, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP.9 Entry for Courtland Palmer in James Grant Wilson and John Fiske, eds., Entry for Courtland Palmer in James Grant Wilson and John Fiske, eds., Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography (New York: D. Appleton, 188789); CtP to WDL, April 18, 22, 26, May 3, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP; LW Dictation; Stonington Reports, 13. (New York: D. Appleton, 188789); CtP to WDL, April 18, 22, 26, May 3, 1838, fold. 2, box 2, WDLP; LW Dictation; Stonington Reports, 13.10 CtP to WDL, January 9, 1839 (misdated 1838), June 6, 1838, fold. 2, CtP to WDL, November 22, 1838, fold. 3, box 2, CtP to WDL, August 13, 28, September 5, October 1, 22, 1838, Richard M. Blatchford to WDL, December 15, 1838, fold. 4, box 2, CtP to WDL, February 11, 1839, Joseph Cowperthwait to WDL, January 10, 1839, fold. 5, box 2, CtP to WDL, July 16, 1839, fold. 6, box 2, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 157; CtP to WDL, January 9, 1839 (misdated 1838), June 6, 1838, fold. 2, CtP to WDL, November 22, 1838, fold. 3, box 2, CtP to WDL, August 13, 28, September 5, October 1, 22, 1838, Richard M. Blatchford to WDL, December 15, 1838, fold. 4, box 2, CtP to WDL, February 11, 1839, Joseph Cowperthwait to WDL, January 10, 1839, fold. 5, box 2, CtP to WDL, July 16, 1839, fold. 6, box 2, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 157; EP EP, January 20, 21, 1840.11 CtP to COH, July 28, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, July 31, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP The full sentence reads, "I had no confidence in him at the time the CtP to COH, July 28, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, July 31, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP The full sentence reads, "I had no confidence in him at the time the Lexington Lexington was purchased, and so stated." was purchased, and so stated."12 Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt, July 24, 1841, file BM 442, Court of Chancery, and Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company, July 17, 1848, file 1848-#1238, Superior Court, NYCC. These sources provide the quotations and incidents in the paragraphs that follow.13 Enrollment No. 387, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], vol. 12150, October 4, 1819, to February 26, 1820, Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA Enrollment No. 387, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], vol. 12150, October 4, 1819, to February 26, 1820, Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA NYH NYH, January 3, 1839; Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt, July 24, 1841, file BM 442, Court of Chancery, and Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company Oliver Vanderbilt v. the Richmond Turnpike Company, July 17, 1848, file 1848-#1238, Superior Court, NYCC; Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL. (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL.14 ProvJ ProvJ, November 3, 1837; Hone, 261; BE BE, April 21, 1842; NR NR, May 17, 1845; John Ashworth, "Agrarians" and "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 18371846 "Agrarians" and "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 18371846 (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1983), 15165. The key work to consult in regard to this point is Gunn, 1123, 141. (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1983), 15165. The key work to consult in regard to this point is Gunn, 1123, 141.15 Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt, July 24, 1841, file BM 442, Court of Chancery, NYCC; Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt, July 11, 1842, file L.J.-1842-N-66, Supreme Court Law Judgments, NYCC; Petition of C Vanderbilt Petition of C Vanderbilt. On Westervelt, see RGD, NYC, 544:13.16 NYT NYT, January 4, 1882.17 Hone, 403. Hone, 403.18 Francis J. Grund, Francis J. Grund, Aristocracy in America Aristocracy in America (London: Richard Bentley 1839), 204. (London: Richard Bentley 1839), 204.19 Dickens, 2678. Dickens, 2678.20 Hone, 410; Moses Beach, Hone, 410; Moses Beach, Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City, 3rd ed. (New York: New York Sun, 1842), 3, 7, 12, 17. Beach relied on rumors to make estimates of his subjects' wealth, placing CVs at $250,000, Drew's at $200,000, Mauran's at $150,000, Hone's at $100,000, and John Jacob Astor's at $14 million. In the case of CV, this estimate is certainly much below his actual wealth; his steamboats alone were likely worth substantially more. On Jacksonian attitudes toward entrepreneurship and stockjobbing, see Michael J. Connolly, Capitalism, Politics, and Railroads in Jacksonian New England Capitalism, Politics, and Railroads in Jacksonian New England (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), 119. Karen Halttunen is particularly enlightening on the moral meaning given the phrase "self-made man" in a society that had lost the traditional rules of conduct under the culture of deference; (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), 119. Karen Halttunen is particularly enlightening on the moral meaning given the phrase "self-made man" in a society that had lost the traditional rules of conduct under the culture of deference; Confidence Men Confidence Men, 1525.21 CtP to WDL, August 11, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; Hone, 415. CtP to WDL, August 11, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; Hone, 415.22 NYT NYT, February 2, 1885.23 Liberator Liberator, December 8, 1837. For Thorn (sometimes spelled "Thorne") as CVs attorney, see Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt Richmond Turnpike Company v. Oliver Vanderbilt, July 24, 1841, file BM 442, Court of Chancery, NYCC.24 NYT NYT, January 4, 1882; NYTr NYTr, March 7, 1878; Ladies' Companion Ladies' Companion, February 1840; Hone, 453; SEP SEP, January 18, 25, 1840; EP EP, January 20, 21, 25, 1840. On the Lexington Lexington tragedy, see almost any newspaper from the northeastern states from January 18 through 25, 1840, and Edwin B. Dunbaugh, tragedy, see almost any newspaper from the northeastern states from January 18 through 25, 1840, and Edwin B. Dunbaugh, Night Boat to New England, 18151900 Night Boat to New England, 18151900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 604. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 604.25 R. M. Whitney to WDL, November 12, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3; WGM, "Memorandum of Interview with C.V in relation to R. M. Whitney to WDL, November 12, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3; WGM, "Memorandum of Interview with C.V in relation to Steamers," Steamers," November 14, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; WDLP; Kirkland, 121. November 14, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; WDLP; Kirkland, 121.26 CtP to WDL, October 22, 1835, fold. 1, box 2; CtP to WDL, October 21, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; E. R. Biddle to WDL, May 9, 1844, fold. 5, box 4; J. Sherman to WDL, September 7, 1840, CtP to WDL, September 10, 1840, CtP to WDL, September 12, 1840, Jonas C. Heartt to CtP, September 10, 1840, CtP to Jonas C. Heart, September 12, 1840, fold. 8, box 2; CtP to WDL, January 24, 1841, fold. 2, box 3; WDLP. CtP remarked to WDL, "Our transfer clerk is not permited [sic] in any case to transfer stocks, unless the parties transfering CtP to WDL, October 22, 1835, fold. 1, box 2; CtP to WDL, October 21, 1840, fold. 1, box 3; E. R. Biddle to WDL, May 9, 1844, fold. 5, box 4; J. Sherman to WDL, September 7, 1840, CtP to WDL, September 10, 1840, CtP to WDL, September 12, 1840, Jonas C. Heartt to CtP, September 10, 1840, CtP to Jonas C. Heart, September 12, 1840, fold. 8, box 2; CtP to WDL, January 24, 1841, fold. 2, box 3; WDLP. CtP remarked to WDL, "Our transfer clerk is not permited [sic] in any case to transfer stocks, unless the parties transfering [sic] [sic] have it in their names & it is never done;" CtP to WDL, October 5, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP. have it in their names & it is never done;" CtP to WDL, October 5, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP.27 MM MM, May 1840. On the cultural ramifications of, and sources of, the confidence man, see Halttunen's fine study. I am hardly the first to comment on the relationship between the new commercial world and Melville's fiction; see, for example, Steve Fraser, Every Man a Speculator: A History of Wall Street in American Life Every Man a Speculator: A History of Wall Street in American Life (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 679. I wrote this commentary without reference to other works, however. (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 679. I wrote this commentary without reference to other works, however.28 NYT NYT, December 9, 1885; NYTr NYTr, April 13, 1878. In addition to a previous home at 173 East Broadway, CV owned a three-story brick "dwelling house" at 165 East Broadway, which he rented out in the early 1840s; CV v. Henry N. Caldwell CV v. Henry N. Caldwell, March 4, 1845, file 1845-#1669, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.29 State of Indiana v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Eli Kelly, Milton Stapp, William S. Dunham, and David Leavit State of Indiana v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Eli Kelly, Milton Stapp, William S. Dunham, and David Leavit, August 20, 1841, file BM 19-I, Court of Chancery, NYCC; NYH NYH, September 9, 1841; Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 2107, 226, 229, 233. Drew and Robinson sold far more than the canceled bonds without proper authorization; the (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 2107, 226, 229, 233. Drew and Robinson sold far more than the canceled bonds without proper authorization; the Herald Herald put the total at $629,000. put the total at $629,000.30 NYT NYT, December 9, 1885; NYTr NYTr, April 13, 1878.31 WGM to WDL, November 13, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 216. WGM to WDL, November 13, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 216.32 Grund, 78; Grund, 78; EP EP, January 25, 1840; SEP SEP, June 1, 1839; Army and Navy Chronicle Army and Navy Chronicle, April 25, August 1, 1839. The interview that follows is recorded in WGM to WDL, November 13, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP.33 WGM to WDL, November 13, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP. WGM to WDL, November 13, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP.

Six Man of Honor Man of Honor 1 Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte," in Robert C. Tucker, ed., Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte," in Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader The Marx-Engels Reader, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1972), 594617.2 Chase Kirkland, Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 2347, 2469; CtP to WDL, August 12, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP. The William D. Lewis Papers offer abundant accounts of the turmoil within the corporation and deep resentment among the railroad's officers at the New Jersey Steam Navigation Company.3 CtP to WDL, March 14, 1840, fold. 7, box 2, CtP to WDL, May 8, 1841, fold. 4, box 3, Courtland Palmer to WDL, July 3, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, May 8, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP; Edwin L. Dunbaugh, CtP to WDL, March 14, 1840, fold. 7, box 2, CtP to WDL, May 8, 1841, fold. 4, box 3, Courtland Palmer to WDL, July 3, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, May 8, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP; Edwin L. Dunbaugh, Night Boat to New England, 18151900 Night Boat to New England, 18151900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 6873. WmC wrote, "No doubt his object is to be bought off." Dunbaugh's book is generally useful, but due to his lack of research into correspondence of the different companies' officers he misses much of the maneuvering and payoffs behind the placement of boats on different routes. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), 6873. WmC wrote, "No doubt his object is to be bought off." Dunbaugh's book is generally useful, but due to his lack of research into correspondence of the different companies' officers he misses much of the maneuvering and payoffs behind the placement of boats on different routes.4 Morrison, 328; Dunbaugh, 6873; Francis B. C. Bradlee, Morrison, 328; Dunbaugh, 6873; Francis B. C. Bradlee, Some Account of Steam Navigation in New England Some Account of Steam Navigation in New England (Salem: Essex Institute, 1920), 89; CtP to WDL, May 19, 1841, WGM to CtP, June 7, 1841, CtP to WDL, June 18, 1841, fold. 4, box 3, CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, June 24, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP. On CV's connection to the Hartford & New Haven Railroad, see an advertisement in (Salem: Essex Institute, 1920), 89; CtP to WDL, May 19, 1841, WGM to CtP, June 7, 1841, CtP to WDL, June 18, 1841, fold. 4, box 3, CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, June 24, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP. On CV's connection to the Hartford & New Haven Railroad, see an advertisement in EP EP, May 6, 1840.5 WmC to COH, July 17, 29, 31, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP. WmC to COH, July 17, 29, 31, 1841, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, August 4, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WDLP.6 WmC to COH, July 29, 1841, January 19, 26, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, July 28, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WGM to WDL, November 29, 1842, fold. 8, box 3, WDLP; WmC to COH, July 29, 1841, January 19, 26, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, July 28, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, WGM to WDL, November 29, 1842, fold. 8, box 3, WDLP; BE BE, April 21, 1842. For reflections on the ongoing debate over corporations, see James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970), 3043. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970), 3043.7 CtP to WDL, September 23, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, and December 16, 1841, fold. 6, box 3, WDLP; CtP to WDL, September 23, 1841, fold. 5, box 3, and December 16, 1841, fold. 6, box 3, WDLP; ProvJ ProvJ, September 3, 13, 1842.8 For an idea of how fuel costs loomed over other categories, see CtP to WDL, November 9, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP. This letter gives the monthly figure for fuel expenditures for a steamer to Stonington at $2,600, far above the next largest item ("wear & tear," at $1,000). On the unusual reliance on tips and incidental charges on this route, see an amusing complaint in the For an idea of how fuel costs loomed over other categories, see CtP to WDL, November 9, 1840, fold. 1, box 3, WDLP. This letter gives the monthly figure for fuel expenditures for a steamer to Stonington at $2,600, far above the next largest item ("wear & tear," at $1,000). On the unusual reliance on tips and incidental charges on this route, see an amusing complaint in the Anglo-American Anglo-American, September 11, 1847. For the quotations and other details, see WmC to COH, July 17, 29, 31,1841, January 19, 26, February 2, 10, 23, March 1, 18, 19, April 12, 18, 19, May 19, fol. vol. 2, CFP.9 WmC to COH, July 17, 29, 31, 1841, January 19, 26, February 2, 10, 23, March 1, 18, 19, April 12, 18, 19, May 19, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, January 18, February 18, March 3, 6, 19, 29, June 26, 1842, WGM to WDL, April 9, 1842, fold. 7, box 3, WDLP. CV's maneuvers did not draw traffic away from the Hartford & New Haven, because that railroad did not yet have a through connection to Boston. WmC to COH, July 17, 29, 31, 1841, January 19, 26, February 2, 10, 23, March 1, 18, 19, April 12, 18, 19, May 19, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP; CtP to WDL, January 18, February 18, March 3, 6, 19, 29, June 26, 1842, WGM to WDL, April 9, 1842, fold. 7, box 3, WDLP. CV's maneuvers did not draw traffic away from the Hartford & New Haven, because that railroad did not yet have a through connection to Boston.10 Hugh McLaughlin v. CV Hugh McLaughlin v. CV, December 12, 1843, Judgements, 18381848, box SI-66, Staten Island Court Papers, NYMA.11 Meeting of February 16, 1842, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del. Meeting of February 16, 1842, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del.12 NYH NYH, September 22, 1841, October 24, 1842; Lane, 71; WmC to COH, August 29, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP; WGM to WDL, October 20, 1842, fold. 8, box 3, WDLP; Morrison, 328; Bradlee, 8995. CV continued to call his line "Vanderbilt's Independent Line" through the end of September; ProvJ ProvJ, September 13, 1842; EP EP, September 27, 1842.13 Minutes for March 1, July 29, 1844, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del.; Minutes for March 1, July 29, 1844, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del.; Anglo-American Anglo-American, June 22, 1844 (which shows Daniel Allen also selling tickets for steamboats to the Norwich Railroad at 34 Broadway).14 ARJ ARJ, September 1844, February 20, 27, 1845; Long Island Railroad Company Directors' Minutes Book 1, 325, 34450, 354, Long Island Railroad Company Directors' Minutes Book 2, 1, box 305, PennCentral Collection, NYPL. ARJ ARJ, February 27, 1845, discussed CVs sale of the three steamboats to the Long Island Railroad, and noted, "the former successful and experienced proprietor of these boats has taken a large interest in the company and participated in its management."15 Anglo-American Anglo-American, April 19, 1845; meeting of April 8, 1845, Long Island Railroad Company Directors' Minutes Book 2, 167, box 305, PennCentral Collection, NYPL; CtP to WDL, April 16, 1843, fold. 2, box 4, WDLP. Immediately after completion, the Long Island Railroad did connect to the Stonington; however, director Elihu Townsend warned Lewis about a change that "seems to alter the state of feeling so far as relates to the former association;" Elihu Townsend to WDL, August 21, 1844, fold. 6, box 4, WDLP.16 WGM to WDL, January 7, 1843, CtP to WDL, January 23, 1843, fold. 1, box 4, S. Jaudon & Co. to WDL, April 5, 1843, fold. 2, box 4, Richard M. Blatchford to WDL, July 23, 1843, WDL to H. G. Stebbins, July 31, 1843, fold. 3, box 4, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 329. WGM to WDL, January 7, 1843, CtP to WDL, January 23, 1843, fold. 1, box 4, S. Jaudon & Co. to WDL, April 5, 1843, fold. 2, box 4, Richard M. Blatchford to WDL, July 23, 1843, WDL to H. G. Stebbins, July 31, 1843, fold. 3, box 4, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 329.17 New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company v. Elisha Peck, Richard M. Blatchford, James Foster Jr., Henry G. Stebbins, Matthew Morgan, Samuel Jaudon, and William S. Wetmore New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company v. Elisha Peck, Richard M. Blatchford, James Foster Jr., Henry G. Stebbins, Matthew Morgan, Samuel Jaudon, and William S. Wetmore, January 3, 1848, file PL-1848-N-4, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.18 Samuel R. Brooks to WDL, October 9, 1845, fold. 6, box 4, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 41; WmC to COH, April 18, 19, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP. Though WmC's report was made three years earlier, its truth regarding the events of 1845 and 1846 were clearly born out. For contemporary evidence of Drew's partnership with Newton in Hudson River steamboats, see Samuel R. Brooks to WDL, October 9, 1845, fold. 6, box 4, WDLP; Stonington Reports, 41; WmC to COH, April 18, 19, 1842, fol. vol. 2, CFP. Though WmC's report was made three years earlier, its truth regarding the events of 1845 and 1846 were clearly born out. For contemporary evidence of Drew's partnership with Newton in Hudson River steamboats, see Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York and Erie Rail Road Company Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York and Erie Rail Road Company, September 10, 1842, file 1842-#331, Superior Court, and Caleb F. Lindsley and George E. Cock v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton Caleb F. Lindsley and George E. Cock v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton, March 20, 1848, file 1848-#951A, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC (the latter referring to an incident in 1846); also entries for August 1846, pages 3366, in vol. 2 of the William D. Murphy Account Books, NYHS.19 Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 7, 1850, file PL-1850-P 3, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 31, 1848, file PL-1848-P 256, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.20 Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton, June 27, 1848, file PL-1848-R, and Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton, November 2, 1848, file PL-1848-R 2, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; Medbery 312; Edmund Clarence Stedman, The New York Stock Exchange The New York Stock Exchange (New York: Stock Exchange Hstorical Company, 1905), 104. Interestingly, the court filings cited here make clear that manipulation of the road's traffic and its stock price were part of the initial investment plan. (New York: Stock Exchange Hstorical Company, 1905), 104. Interestingly, the court filings cited here make clear that manipulation of the road's traffic and its stock price were part of the initial investment plan.21 Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, July 3, 1845. For full sources for my analysis of CVs operation, see the next endnote.22 NYH NYH, July 4, September 26, 1845; Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, July 3, 1845; NYTr NYTr, October 2, 1845, September 29, 1847; Stonington Reports, 4650; Lane, 75. CV CV, it appears, rallied support among Drew and others by promising to challenge the legitimacy of the corporation's bonds, even though they represented a 50 percent reduction of the original debt. The argument used in court was that the original bonds were usurious and thus invalid, which would invalidate the compromised debt as well. The case never reached a decision. See NYH NYH, cited above, and New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company v. Elisha Peck, Richard M. Blatchford, James Foster Jr., Henry G. Stebbins, Matthew Morgan, Samuel Jaudon, and William S. Wet-more New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company v. Elisha Peck, Richard M. Blatchford, James Foster Jr., Henry G. Stebbins, Matthew Morgan, Samuel Jaudon, and William S. Wet-more, January 3, 1848, file PL-1848-N-4, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.23 ARJ ARJ, October 10, 1846; Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Directors to the Stockholders of the Hartford & New Haven R. R. Co Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Directors to the Stockholders of the Hartford & New Haven R. R. Co. (Hartford: Case, Tiffany, 1852); HC HC, September 10, 1846.24 NYH NYH, July 4, September 26, 1845, September 30, 1847; NYTr NYTr, October 2, 1845, September 29, 1847; Stonington Reports, 4650. Regarding the dates of Drew's takeover of the Navigation Company: on August 7, 1846, WmC wrote a letter to COH; on August 17, he wrote to R. E. Lockwood, Drew's secretary, asking him to show the letter to Drew; fol. vol. 2, CFP.25 NYTr NYTr, October 31, 1844.26 Daniel Walker Howe, Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), esp. 570612; Sean Wilentz, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), esp. 570612; Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 5303; Howard Bodenhorn, "Bank Chartering and Political Corruption in Antebellum New York: Free Banking as Reform," in Edward L. Glaeser and Claudia Goldin, eds., (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 5303; Howard Bodenhorn, "Bank Chartering and Political Corruption in Antebellum New York: Free Banking as Reform," in Edward L. Glaeser and Claudia Goldin, eds., Corruption and Reform: Lessons from America's Economic History Corruption and Reform: Lessons from America's Economic History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 23157; Richard R. John, "Private Enterprise, Public Good? Communications Deregulation as a National Political Issue, 18391851," in Jeffrey L. Pasley, Andrew W. Robertson, and David Waldstreecher, eds., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 23157; Richard R. John, "Private Enterprise, Public Good? Communications Deregulation as a National Political Issue, 18391851," in Jeffrey L. Pasley, Andrew W. Robertson, and David Waldstreecher, eds., Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early Republic Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 32954; Richard R. John, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 32954; Richard R. John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 949, 2423. Richard R. John stresses the pragmatic and nonpartisan considerations behind antebellum policy making; see Richard R. John, "Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America," in Richard R. John, ed., (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 949, 2423. Richard R. John stresses the pragmatic and nonpartisan considerations behind antebellum policy making; see Richard R. John, "Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America," in Richard R. John, ed., Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 120. (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 120.27 Howe, 648743; Howe, 648743; NYTR NYTR, November 1, 1844.28 NYTr NYTr, October 31, November 1, 1844. On the dates, nature, and impact of Irish immigration, see Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001). (New York: Free Press, 2001).29 Elliott J. Gorn, Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), 6979; Anbinder, 1567, 159, 2016; Burrows & Wallace, 6335; Edward K. Spann, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), 6979; Anbinder, 1567, 159, 2016; Burrows & Wallace, 6335; Edward K. Spann, The New Metropolis: New York City, 18401857 The New Metropolis: New York City, 18401857 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 24; (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 24; NYT NYT, May 14, 1845, February 4, 1849.30 NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. An example of how the press followed Yankee Sullivan is in NYH NYH, May 14, 1845, as well as its story of February 4, 1849.31 NYH NYH, June 13, August 15, 1845, August 15, 1846; Grund, 212, 214. Halttunen's observations in Confidence Men Confidence Men (esp. 623, 934) of the disruptive impact of the market, the anonymity of Jacksonian society, and the importance of behavior in establishing gentility underscore the point I am trying to make about the artificiality of social status. On the NYH's mixture of "fawning" and "expose" in its high-society coverage, see Burrows & Wallace, 5257, 640. The idea that Jacksonian America experienced a great deal of social mobility was attacked by Edward Pessen; see especially (esp. 623, 934) of the disruptive impact of the market, the anonymity of Jacksonian society, and the importance of behavior in establishing gentility underscore the point I am trying to make about the artificiality of social status. On the NYH's mixture of "fawning" and "expose" in its high-society coverage, see Burrows & Wallace, 5257, 640. The idea that Jacksonian America experienced a great deal of social mobility was attacked by Edward Pessen; see especially Riches, Class, and Power Before the Civil War Riches, Class, and Power Before the Civil War (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1973). However, Frederic Cople Jaher, (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1973). However, Frederic Cople Jaher, The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 160250, illustrates the extreme instability of the upper stratum following the end of the culture of deference. Pessen's point is well taken here, as many of the antebellum wealthy came from prosperous backgrounds. However, not all belonged to the old aristocratic families of the eighteenth century; the old aristocracy disappeared as a functional category, breaking the grip of a select group of families on wealth and power. Eric Homberger, (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 160250, illustrates the extreme instability of the upper stratum following the end of the culture of deference. Pessen's point is well taken here, as many of the antebellum wealthy came from prosperous backgrounds. However, not all belonged to the old aristocratic families of the eighteenth century; the old aristocracy disappeared as a functional category, breaking the grip of a select group of families on wealth and power. Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 3, is interested in the period that followed the downfall of the culture of deference, in the ways in which a highly unstable social elite sought to write and enforce rules of status. As my discussion will show, this issue pertains to my analysis as well, but I am more concerned with the new distinction between (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 3, is interested in the period that followed the downfall of the culture of deference, in the ways in which a highly unstable social elite sought to write and enforce rules of status. As my discussion will show, this issue pertains to my analysis as well, but I am more concerned with the new distinction between a fashionable a fashionable elite and elite and a functional a functional one. one.32 NYH NYH, March 2, 1840; Homberger, 13542.33 Book of Minutes 1, July 30, 1844, to March 18, 1891, box 1, New York Yacht Club Library and Archives, New York, NY. Book of Minutes 1, July 30, 1844, to March 18, 1891, box 1, New York Yacht Club Library and Archives, New York, NY.34 Burrows & Wallace, 6258, 6358; Spann, 369, 55, 117, 1323. Burrows & Wallace, 6258, 6358; Spann, 369, 55, 117, 1323.35 "The Islets of the Gulf," "The Islets of the Gulf," Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion, January 1847; Dickens, 89, 91.36 BE BE, June 5, 1845; NYH NYH, July 2, 8, 1921, 1845; NYTr NYTr, July 22, 1845; BE BE, June 5, 1845; Meetings of September 29, 1845, and October 10, 1846, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library. It should be noted that the Richmond Turnpike Company's charter expired on April 1, 1844. On January 29, 1844, before the corporation formally dissolved, Mauran and CV assigned to themselves all of its property and leases, and continued the business as the Staten Island Ferry. See People of the State of New York v. CV, Anthony Bird, Stephen Williams, Elias Butler, Jacob Van Cleef and Jacob Arnold People of the State of New York v. CV, Anthony Bird, Stephen Williams, Elias Butler, Jacob Van Cleef and Jacob Arnold, November 22, 1851, Supreme Court, Richmond County, box SI-68, NYMA.37 Liberator Liberator, March 24, 1848; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City The Historical Atlas of New York City (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 78, and (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 78, and Mrs. Astor's New York Mrs. Astor's New York, 1119.38 Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson and His Wife, John K. Vanderbilt and Charles M. Simonson Junior, Executors, and Mary Simonson, Executrix of the Last Will and Testament of Cornelius Simonson, Deceased, and John K. Vanderbilt Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson and His Wife, John K. Vanderbilt and Charles M. Simonson Junior, Executors, and Mary Simonson, Executrix of the Last Will and Testament of Cornelius Simonson, Deceased, and John K. Vanderbilt, April 27, 1844, file D CH-177-V, Court of Chancery, Jacob H Vanderbilt and John Vanderbilt v. the People of the State of New York Jacob H Vanderbilt and John Vanderbilt v. the People of the State of New York, May 10, 1844, file PL-1844-P-424, Supreme Court Pleadings, People of the City of New York v. Jacob H Vanderbilt People of the City of New York v. Jacob H Vanderbilt, December 19, 1844, file 1844771, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; NYT NYT, December 19, 22, 1877; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYS NYS, November 14, 1877. CJV later testified that his first seizure came at the age of seven; NYS NYS, December 22, 1877.39 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYS NYS, November 13, 14, 1877; NYT NYT, November 13, 14, 1877.40 NYH NYH, August 15, September 7, 1846. See also SA SA, August 27, 1846; NYTr NYTr, June 1, August 15, 27, 1846; MM MM, September 1846; ProvJ ProvJ, November 30, 1846. CV charged the Norwich Railroad about $160,000 for the Atlantic Atlantic.41 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYS NYS, November 13, 14, 1877; NYT NYT, November 13, 1877.42 ProvJ ProvJ, November 28, 30, December 2, 1846; ARJ ARJ, December 5, 1846; Liberator Liberator, December 4, 1846; NYH NYH, November 29, 30, December 10, 1846.43 NYH NYH, June 2, 1847; SA SA, March 27, 1847; HC HC, September 10, 1846; Morrison, 3123, 328; Heyl, 6:737.44 Morrison, 3123; WDL to CtP, March 6, 1843, fold. 1, box 4, WDLP. Morrison, 3123; WDL to CtP, March 6, 1843, fold. 1, box 4, WDLP.45 Morrison, 3123; Morrison, 3123; NYH NYH, September 5, 9, 1846, June 1, 1847; EP EP, June 1, 1847; NYTr NYTr, June 2, 1847.46 A Sketch of the Events of the Life of George Law A Sketch of the Events of the Life of George Law (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855); entry for George Law, (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855); entry for George Law, DAB; ARJ DAB; ARJ, April 11, 1846; David S. Manners and Lydia Roberts, Administrators of Samuel Roberts, Deceased, v. George Law and Arnold Mason David S. Manners and Lydia Roberts, Administrators of Samuel Roberts, Deceased, v. George Law and Arnold Mason, March 18, 1854, file 18542117, Superior Court, NYCC; Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, file PL-1850-P 3, January 7, 1850, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; Heyl, 2:1856. He also served for a year as a director of the Long Island Railroad, starting in 1843; see Long Island Railroad Company Directors' Minutes Book 1, 274, 318, PennCentral Collection, NYPL. Law actually owned the Oregon Oregon with A. P. St. John; see a lawsuit regarding the sinking and raising of the with A. P. St. John; see a lawsuit regarding the sinking and raising of the Oregon Oregon at Hell Gate, at Hell Gate, Russell Sturgis v. George Law and Alanson P. St. John Russell Sturgis v. George Law and Alanson P. St. John, March 27, 1850, 1850922, Superior Court, NYCC.47 Morrison, 3123; Morrison, 3123; NYH NYH, June 1, 2, 4, 1847; EP EP, June 1, 2, 1847; NYTr NYTr, June 2, 1847; SA SA, June 25, 1847; Anglo-American Anglo-American, June 5, 1847. On the telegraph, see ARJ ARJ, January 2, 1847. Lane, 767, eager as always to repeat undocumented anecdotes, reverses the reasons for the defeat, claiming that CV prevented a slackening of speed.48 Hone, 801; Hone, 801; NYH NYH, June 26, 1847.49 Oliver Vanderbilt v. Richmond Turnpike Company Oliver Vanderbilt v. Richmond Turnpike Company, July 17, 1848, file 1848-#1238, Superior Court, NYCC; Stonington Reports, 4454; EP EP, November 18, 1848; Long Island Railroad Company Directors' Minutes Book 2, 413, 64, box 305, PennCentral Railroad Collection, NYPL. ARJ ARJ, August 5, 1848, quoting the Hartford Times Hartford Times, referred to the Commodore Commodore as a "magnificent and agile steamer." as a "magnificent and agile steamer."50 ARJ ARJ, February 5, 1848; Liberator Liberator, March 24, 1848.

PART TWO COMMODORE.

Seven Prometheus Prometheus 1 Memoirs of General William T. Sherman Memoirs of General William T. Sherman (New York: Da Capo Press, 1984), 1:3941. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1984), 1:3941.2 Sherman, 1:39; John F. Marszalek, Sherman, 1:39; John F. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier's Passion for Order Sherman: A Soldier's Passion for Order (New York: Free Press, 1993), 4, 617. (New York: Free Press, 1993), 4, 617.3 Sherman, 1:401. Sherman, 1:401.4 Strong, 1:272, 302, 341. The "rosewood and red satin" observation is Strong's. Karen Halttunen writes, in Strong, 1:272, 302, 341. The "rosewood and red satin" observation is Strong's. Karen Halttunen writes, in Confidence Men Confidence Men, 187, that "personal rituals of self-congratulation," a new "social formalism" seen in "the parlor theatrical" among the wealthy, started to emerge in the 1850s; obviously they emerged even earlier in New York.5 HC HC, March 9, 1848; RGD, NYC, 374:1, entry dated May 26, 1853. The Mercantile Agency, founded in 1841 by Lewis Tappan, became R. G. Dun & Co. in 1859. Though the records of the firm, held at Harvard Business School's Baker Library, are titled R. G. Dun & Co., the company will be called the Mercantile Agency until 1859 in this narrative. See James D. Norris, R. G. Dun & Co., 18411900: The Development of Credit Reporting in the Nineteenth Century R. G. Dun & Co., 18411900: The Development of Credit Reporting in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978). In all R. G. Dun & Co. citations, the bracketed words are simply expanded from abbreviation in the original (for example, "very" for "vy"). (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978). In all R. G. Dun & Co. citations, the bracketed words are simply expanded from abbreviation in the original (for example, "very" for "vy").6 On the aristocratic nature of CVs neighborhood, especially Astor Place and Lafayette Place, see Eric Homberger, On the aristocratic nature of CVs neighborhood, especially Astor Place and Lafayette Place, see Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 10419. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 10419.7 SA SA, June 17, 1848; Independent Independent, December 7, 1848; Stonington Reports, 4454.8 New York Evangelist New York Evangelist, March 27, 1851; entry for March 7, 1848, Hone ms.9 Stonington Reports, 528; Stonington Reports, 528; NYT NYT, September 23, 1852; Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 7, 1850, file PL-1850-P 3, Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 31, 1848, file PL-1848-P 256, and Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen v. Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton, June 27, 1848, file PL-1848-R, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; RGD, NYC, 366:251, 300C.10 RGD, NYC, 374:1, 341: 184; Medbery, 312; Minutes of the New York Stock and Exchange Board, vol. 4: 18511858, 248, New York Stock Exchange Archives. Decades later, Drew testified that he had often seen CV at Robinson's office; RGD, NYC, 374:1, 341: 184; Medbery, 312; Minutes of the New York Stock and Exchange Board, vol. 4: 18511858, 248, New York Stock Exchange Archives. Decades later, Drew testified that he had often seen CV at Robinson's office; NYW NYW, March 9, 1878. Medbery's excellent account vividly and clearly describes practices on the early stock exchange; see especially pages 218. On the cultural impact of commercial abstractions, see Confidence Men, 6 Confidence Men, 6y.11 For an excellent summary of the emergence of the corporation in antebellum America, see Gunn, 49. For an excellent summary of the emergence of the corporation in antebellum America, see Gunn, 49.12 For an important discussion of the vagueness and permeability of the distinction between corporations and partnerships, see Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., For an important discussion of the vagueness and permeability of the distinction between corporations and partnerships, see Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. Gregory A. Mark notes that nineteenth-century courts refused "to recognize a corporate personality separate from the summed interests of the individuals who made up the corporation;" see "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. Gregory A. Mark notes that nineteenth-century courts refused "to recognize a corporate personality separate from the summed interests of the individuals who made up the corporation;" see "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183. 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183.13 This discussion derives from a full reading of the evidence presented throughout this book. My interpretation of the profound shift in culture produced by the corporation and other commercial abstractions is informed by James L. Huston, This discussion derives from a full reading of the evidence presented throughout this book. My interpretation of the profound shift in culture produced by the corporation and other commercial abstractions is informed by James L. Huston, Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1998), but I differ with his conclusion that "nothing that occurred in the years 1765 to 1880 drastically revised the revolutionary heritage" (149). I believe that the emergence of the business corporation, and the corresponding reaction, did drastically revise the revolutionary heritage, and did so long before "industrialization" fully arrived. In a broader cultural sense, Halttunen captures this anxiety over the hidden-an anxiety closely tied, I believe, to the emergence of commercial abstractions. Joseph A. Schumpeter discusses the "evaporation of the substance of property" in (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1998), but I differ with his conclusion that "nothing that occurred in the years 1765 to 1880 drastically revised the revolutionary heritage" (149). I believe that the emergence of the business corporation, and the corresponding reaction, did drastically revise the revolutionary heritage, and did so long before "industrialization" fully arrived. In a broader cultural sense, Halttunen captures this anxiety over the hidden-an anxiety closely tied, I believe, to the emergence of commercial abstractions. Joseph A. Schumpeter discusses the "evaporation of the substance of property" in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 1568. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 1568.14 Morton J. Horwitz, Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 1367; Adam Smith, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 1367; Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 2000), book 1, chap. 6, 70. (New York: Modern Library, 2000), book 1, chap. 6, 70.15 John Lauritz Larson, John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 22555, esp. 243. See also Daniel Walker Howe, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 22555, esp. 243. See also Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 55769. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 55769.16 Soule, 172, 174, 202, 214; H. W. Brands, Soule, 172, 174, 202, 214; H. W. Brands, The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream (New York: Doubleday 2002), 62. (New York: Doubleday 2002), 62.17 Sherman, 46. Sherman, 46.18 Ibid., 5660. Ibid., 5660.19 MM MM, April 1847.20 Entries for March 22, September 6, 1848, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library; Entries for March 22, September 6, 1848, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library; Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL. On joint real estate holdings, see, for example, (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL. On joint real estate holdings, see, for example, Oroondates Mauran and CV v. Morris Wolf Oroondates Mauran and CV v. Morris Wolf, May 11, 1843, file 1843-#814, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. I am indebted to Mr. Frank Mauran of Providence, Rhode Island, for information from Oroondates Mauran's account books.21 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; entry for March 23, 1845, Strong, 1:257.22 Polk quoted in T. J. Stiles, Polk quoted in T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 24; Strong, 1:337; Brands, 70. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 24; Strong, 1:337; Brands, 70.23 Strong, 1:344; James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co., January 22, 1849, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB; James P. Delgado, Strong, 1:344; James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co., January 22, 1849, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB; James P. Delgado, To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the California Gold Rush To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the California Gold Rush (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 19, 27; (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 19, 27; NYH NYH, April 19, 1849.24 My guess that Daniel B. Allen created the scheme is based on the fact that he took the largest number of shares (three). See My guess that Daniel B. Allen created the scheme is based on the fact that he took the largest number of shares (three). See Daniel B. Allen, Jeremiah Simonson, William McLean, Alexander H Britton, WHV, Nathaniel Hayward, Henry Anderson, John Peck, and the Said Daniel B. Allen, Jacob H Vanderbilt, and James Brady, Trustees of the California Navigation Company of New York, v. James H Fisk and CV Daniel B. Allen, Jeremiah Simonson, William McLean, Alexander H Britton, WHV, Nathaniel Hayward, Henry Anderson, John Peck, and the Said Daniel B. Allen, Jacob H Vanderbilt, and James Brady, Trustees of the California Navigation Company of New York, v. James H Fisk and CV, January 24, 1851, file PL-1851-A 17, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. I will use the spelling "Corneil" for the diminutive for Cornelius J., as this was the spelling his wife later used; see NYW NYW, December 22, 1877.25 NYTr NYTr, March 28, 1878.26 Larson, 240; John G. B. Hutchins, Larson, 240; John G. B. Hutchins, The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy, 17891914 The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy, 17891914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941), 35863; Leonard D. White, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941), 35863; Leonard D. White, The Jacksonians: A Study in Administrative History, 18291861 The Jacksonians: A Study in Administrative History, 18291861 (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 458. White notes, 450, that enthusiasm for federal subsidies for steamships that could be converted to naval use predated Polk's administration. (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 458. White notes, 450, that enthusiasm for federal subsidies for steamships that could be converted to naval use predated Polk's administration.27 Kemble, 3, 719; Joseph B. Lockey "A Neglected Aspect of Isthmian Diplomacy," Kemble, 3, 719; Joseph B. Lockey "A Neglected Aspect of Isthmian Diplomacy," AHR AHR 41, no. 2 (January 1936): 295305. For a review of federal subsidies for steamships overall during this period, see Hutchins, 34868. Richard R. John notes in 41, no. 2 (January 1936): 295305. For a review of federal subsidies for steamships overall during this period, see Hutchins, 34868. Richard R. John notes in Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 949, 2423, that the Post Office Department had long subsidized stagecoach lines, to the extent of hundreds of thousands of dollars per year; in 1845, though, Congress cut off such subsidies. As John's work makes clear, the Post Office is no small exception to the rule that the federal government largely left the economy alone prior to the Civil War. Though it had its critics in the Locofoco movement, essentially all parties embraced its expansive role, and the Democrats made it a tool of party building (see 2134, 23640). In size and in scale of corruption, however, the steamship subsidies appear to have dwarfed the stagecoach subsidies. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 949, 2423, that the Post Office Department had long subsidized stagecoach lines, to the extent of hundreds of thousands of dollars per year; in 1845, though, Congress cut off such subsidies. As John's work makes clear, the Post Office is no small exception to the rule that the federal government largely left the economy alone prior to the Civil War. Though it had its critics in the Locofoco movement, essentially all parties embraced its expansive role, and the Democrats made it a tool of party building (see 2134, 23640). In size and in scale of corruption, however, the steamship subsidies appear to have dwarfed the stagecoach subsidies.28 Mark W. Summers, Mark W. Summers, The Plundering Generation: Corruption and the Crisis of the Union, 18491861 The Plundering Generation: Corruption and the Crisis of the Union, 18491861 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 134; Kemble, 145, 1920, 225; SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; SR 292, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 134; Kemble, 145, 1920, 225; SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; SR 292, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law, May 22, 1861, file 1861832, Superior Court, NYCC; Western Journal of Civilization Western Journal of Civilization, September 1852. The federal subsidies, and Sloo's assignment of his rights, were much more complicated than perhaps is suggested by this brief description. For example, the navy supervised construction of the vessels, which were on call for national service; and Sloo actually assigned his rights to a trusteeship run by Law, Roberts, and a representative of Sloo's interests. Sloo was to receive 10 percent of the annual profits of the five ships on the Atlantic.29 Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law, May 22, 1861, file 1861832, Superior Court, NYCC; RGD, NYC, 342:300D; A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855). (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855).30 Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew Curtis Peck v. Daniel Drew, January 31, 1848, file PL-1848-P 256, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. See also Summers's descriptions of Law's government dealings, 37, 15960, and NYT NYT, March 13, 1852.31 Strong, 1:272, 348, 2:253; Strong, 1:272, 348, 2:253; NYT NYT, January 19, 1875; see also Moses Beach, Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City Wealth and Pedigree of the Wealthy Citizens of New York City, 3rd ed. (New York: New York Sun, 1842), 3.32 NYT NYT, January 19, 1875; New York Observer New York Observer, January 21, 1875.33 Folkman, 14. On published accounts of the Nicaragua route, see, for example, Folkman, 14. On published accounts of the Nicaragua route, see, for example, MM MM, March 1847.34 Ephraim George Squier, Ephraim George Squier, Nicaragua: Its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the Proposed Interoceanic Canal Nicaragua: Its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the Proposed Interoceanic Canal (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 81, 989, 107; Orville W. Childs, (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 81, 989, 107; Orville W. Childs, Report of the Survey and Estimates of the Cost of Construction of the Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal Report of the Survey and Estimates of the Cost of Construction of the Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal (New York: William C. Bryant, 1852), 5. (New York: William C. Bryant, 1852), 5.35 Report of Robert Mills, HsR 145, 30th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. Report of Robert Mills, HsR 145, 30th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2.36 The quotes and descriptions of San Francisco are from Soule et al., 21426, 2434; other information from The quotes and descriptions of San Francisco are from Soule et al., 21426, 2434; other information from Daniel B. Allen, ors., v. James H Fisk and CV Daniel B. Allen, ors., v. James H Fisk and CV, January 24, 1851, file PL-1851-A 17, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; NYH NYH, December 29, 1877. See also Kevin Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 18501915 Americans and the California Dream, 18501915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 4963, and Delgado, 7581. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 4963, and Delgado, 7581.37 Soule et al., ibid.; Soule et al., ibid.; Daniel B. Allen, ors., vs. Fisk, ibid.; NYT Daniel B. Allen, ors., vs. Fisk, ibid.; NYT, December 29, 1877.38 EP EP, June 4, 1847; CT CT, February 11, 1861; NYT NYT, December 27, 1855, February 4, 1861; Folkman, 167. The Mercantile Agency first reported on JLW in December 1853; see RGD, NYC, 374:97.39 Minutes for March 24, 1849, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library; JLW to JMC, March 29, 1849, vol. 3: Letters Received, January 15 to March 29, 1849, JMC-P. Minutes for March 24, 1849, Minute Book of the Elizabethport and New York Ferry Company, box 4, Central Railroad Company of New Jersey Papers, Hagley Museum and Library; JLW to JMC, March 29, 1849, vol. 3: Letters Received, January 15 to March 29, 1849, JMC-P.40 JLW to JMC, April 3, 1849, vol. 4: Letters Received, March 30 to May 11, 1849, JMC-P; JMC to Ephraim G. Squier, May 1, 1849, HED 75, 31st Cong., 1st sess., vol. 10; Folkman, 178; Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 185060," JLW to JMC, April 3, 1849, vol. 4: Letters Received, March 30 to May 11, 1849, JMC-P; JMC to Ephraim G. Squier, May 1, 1849, HED 75, 31st Cong., 1st sess., vol. 10; Folkman, 178; Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 185060," JModH JModH 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983. 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983.41 Groesbeck later testified that he had been Drew's broker since about 1848; Groesbeck later testified that he had been Drew's broker since about 1848; NYH NYH, March 26, 1868. He also stated that he had known Drew since about 1842; NYT NYT, April 24, 1868.42 Dispatch dated April 16, 1849, Manning, 3:316. Dispatch dated April 16, 1849, Manning, 3:316.43 Manning, 3:3605; HED 75, 31st Cong., 1st sess., vol. 10; Manning, 3:3605; HED 75, 31st Cong., 1st sess., vol. 10; Terms of Contract Between the State of Nicaragua and the Atlantic & Pacific Ship Canal Company: Proposed by the Commissioners of the State of Nicaragua, at the City of Leon, in the State of Nicaragua, on the 27th Day of August, 1849 Terms of Contract Between the State of Nicaragua and the Atlantic & Pacific Ship Canal Company: Proposed by the Commissioners of the State of Nicaragua, at the City of Leon, in the State of Nicaragua, on the 27th Day of August, 1849 (New York: William C. Bryant & Co., 1849), copy in NYPL. The rival firm signed an agreement on March 14, 1849, but it was never ratified; see Squier, 262, 268. Interestingly, the rival firm attempted to sell its contract to CVs company; JLW to JMC, August 22, 1849, vol. 6: Letters Received, August 15 to October 20, 1849, JMC-P. (New York: William C. Bryant & Co., 1849), copy in NYPL. The rival firm signed an agreement on March 14, 1849, but it was never ratified; see Squier, 262, 268. Interestingly, the rival firm attempted to sell its contract to CVs company; JLW to JMC, August 22, 1849, vol. 6: Letters Received, August 15 to October 20, 1849, JMC-P.44 Burns, 27, 345, 39, 59, 67; Squier, 1368. Burns, 27, 345, 39, 59, 67; Squier, 1368.45 Burns, 1478, 156, 158, 1612; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," Burns, 1478, 156, 158, 1612; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," HAHR HAHR 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634; Manning, 3:534. See also Squier, 262, 268. 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634; Manning, 3:534. See also Squier, 262, 268.46 USMDR USMDR, November-December 1849.47 Burns, 1612; Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 185060," Burns, 1612; Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 185060," JModH JModH 11: no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; 11: no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; USMDR USMDR, NovemberDecember 1849.48 Manning, 7:49. Manning, 7:49.49 Robert A. Naylor, "The British Role in Central America Prior to the Clayton-Bulwer TREATY of 1850," Robert A. Naylor, "The British Role in Central America Prior to the Clayton-Bulwer TREATY of 1850," HAHR HAHR 40, no. 3 (August 1960): 36182; Richmond F. Brown, "Charles Lennox Wyke and the Clayton-Bulwer Formula in Central America, 18521860," 40, no. 3 (August 1960): 36182; Richmond F. Brown, "Charles Lennox Wyke and the Clayton-Bulwer Formula in Central America, 18521860," The Americas The Americas 47, no. 4 (April 1991): 41145; G. F. Hickson, "Palmerston and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," 47, no. 4 (April 1991): 41145; G. F. Hickson, "Palmerston and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," Cambridge Historical Journal Cambridge Historical Journal 3, no. 3 (1931): 295303; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," 3, no. 3 (1931): 295303; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," JModH JModH 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078; Squier, 263. For Squier's views of Chatfield, see Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078; Squier, 263. For Squier's views of Chatfield, see Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," HAHR HAHR 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634; Manning, 3:534. The Nicaraguans communicated to the canal company their plans to move against the British in San Juan del Norte; see JLW to JMC, August 22, 1849, vol. 6: Letters Received, August 15 to October 20, 1849, JMC-P. 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634; Manning, 3:534. The Nicaraguans communicated to the canal company their plans to move against the British in San Juan del Norte; see JLW to JMC, August 22, 1849, vol. 6: Letters Received, August 15 to October 20, 1849, JMC-P.50 George L. Bernstein, "Special Relationship and Appeasement: Liberal Policy towards America in the Age of Palmerston," George L. Bernstein, "Special Relationship and Appeasement: Liberal Policy towards America in the Age of Palmerston," Historical Journal Historical Journal 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550; Jasper Ridley, 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston Lord Palmerston (London: Constable, 1970), 273. (London: Constable, 1970), 273.51 PS PS, December 6, 1849; National Era National Era, December 27, 1849; Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 185060," JModH JModH 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty" 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty" JModH JModH 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078; JLW to Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, New York, January 16, 1850, vol. 8: Letters Received, January 1 to April 9, 1850, JMC-P. 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078; JLW to Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, New York, January 16, 1850, vol. 8: Letters Received, January 1 to April 9, 1850, JMC-P.52 Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, The Ordeal of the Union The Ordeal of the Union, vol. 1: Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 18471852 Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 18471852 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 221, 255; JMC to [John J.] Crittenden, February 10, 1850, Clayton Misc. Mss., NYHS. On JLW's belief that he dictated the resulting treaty, see (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 221, 255; JMC to [John J.] Crittenden, February 10, 1850, Clayton Misc. Mss., NYHS. On JLW's belief that he dictated the resulting treaty, see NYH NYH, June 25, 1850. For insight on the political fever of the moment, see diary entry for January 26, 1850, Strong, 2:5. For Whig attitudes toward "British encroachments and aggressions in Central America," see American Review American Review, February 1850.53 Kemble, 369, 4650. Kemble, 369, 4650.54 Stonington Reports, 53. One possible reason for CV's loss of interest in the Stonington was the completion in 1848 of a continuous rail connection between Boston and New York, when the New York & New Haven connected to the HRR. Though the Stonington still offered faster and more comfortable transportation between the two cities, it was already clear that railroads had a tendency to drive out steamboats; see Thomas C. Cochran, Stonington Reports, 53. One possible reason for CV's loss of interest in the Stonington was the completion in 1848 of a continuous rail connection between Boston and New York, when the New York & New Haven connected to the HRR. Though the Stonington still offered faster and more comfortable transportation between the two cities, it was already clear that railroads had a tendency to drive out steamboats; see Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 23. (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 23.55 RGD, NYC, 374:193; RGD, NYC, 374:193; BE BE, May 1, 1850; NYTr NYTr, October 1, 1850; Heyl, 6:259. On the organization and elaboration of the canal company and its successors, see NYTr NYTr, March 26, 1852. CV did not complete purchase of the shipyard until April 8, 1850, when he mortgaged the property for $43,680; New York Life Insurance & Trust Co. v. CV, Freeman Campbell and Mary Ann, His Wife, Rutherford Moody and Eunice P., His Wife, Jacob J. Van Pelt and Sarah, His Wife, and Jay Jarvis, President of the Citizen's Bank New York Life Insurance & Trust Co. v. CV, Freeman Campbell and Mary Ann, His Wife, Rutherford Moody and Eunice P., His Wife, Jacob J. Van Pelt and Sarah, His Wife, and Jay Jarvis, President of the Citizen's Bank, September 25, 1855, file PL 1855-N14, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC For a discussion of the steamships first built for the California business, see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 10314. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 10314.56 NYH NYH, December 14, 1849.57 Allan Pred, Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 18401860 Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 18401860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 150. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 150.58 NYH NYH, December 17, 1849; Baughman, 6 6g, 123, 4463; Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law Theodosius F. Secor and CM v. George Law, May 22, 1861, file 1861832, Superior Court, NYCC. See also Squier's report on the progress made by the canal company, Manning, 3:510.59 NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1850; NYH NYH, January 9, March 10, 1850.60 CM's reluctance to discuss his affairs was a subject of comment in the newspapers. See, for example, a transcription of an amusingly unenlightening interview, CM's reluctance to discuss his affairs was a subject of comment in the newspapers. See, for example, a transcription of an amusingly unenlightening interview, NYT NYT, July 31, 1857.61 CV to Hamilton Fish, February 7, 1850, vol. 18, Hamilton Fish Papers, LOC. For a reference to Robert Kelly, see Strong, 2:173. CV to Hamilton Fish, February 7, 1850, vol. 18, Hamilton Fish Papers, LOC. For a reference to Robert Kelly, see Strong, 2:173.62 NYH NYH, February 22, 1850.63 NYH NYH, February 24, 1850; NYTr NYTr, April 24, May 25, 1850; Charter and Act of Incorporation of the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company and Treaty of Protection Negociated Between the United States and Great Britain Charter and Act of Incorporation of the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company and Treaty of Protection Negociated Between the United States and Great Britain (New York: Globe Job, 1850), copy in NYPL; George L. Bernstein, "Special Relationship and Appeasement: Liberal Policy towards American in the Age of Palmerston," (New York: Globe Job, 1850), copy in NYPL; George L. Bernstein, "Special Relationship and Appeasement: Liberal Policy towards American in the Age of Palmerston," Historical Journal Historical Journal 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550; G. F. Hickson, "Palmerston and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550; G. F. Hickson, "Palmerston and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," Cambridge Historical Journal Cambridge Historical Journal 3, no. 3 (1931): 295303; Burns, 1789. JLW even irritated Bulwer; see JLW to Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, February 25, 1850, vol. 8: Letters Received, January 1 to April 9, 1850, JMC-P. 3, no. 3 (1931): 295303; Burns, 1789. JLW even irritated Bulwer; see JLW to Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, February 25, 1850, vol. 8: Letters Received, January 1 to April 9, 1850, JMC-P.64 Ephraim G. Squier to JMC, May 8, 1850, quoted in Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," Ephraim G. Squier to JMC, May 8, 1850, quoted in Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ed., "Letters of E. George Squire to John M. Clayton, 18491850," HAHR HAHR 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634. JLW let it be known in the United States as well that he had drafted the treaty himself; see 1, no. 4 (November 1918): 42634. JLW let it be known in the United States as well that he had drafted the treaty himself; see NYH NYH, June 25, 1850.65 NYTr NYTr, April 25, October 1, 1850; BE BE, May 1, 1850; see also entries for June 22 and July 10, 1850, William D. Murphy Account Books, vol. 3: 1849185 i i, NYHS; NYH NYH, July 9, 12, 1850.66 CV v. Jesse P. Wilson CV v. Jesse P. Wilson, March 19, 1856, file 18562735, Superior Court, and CV v. Mark Wadleigh and Calvin E. Knox CV v. Mark Wadleigh and Calvin E. Knox, June 24, 1857, file LJ-1857-W-173, Supreme Court Judgments, NYCC; entry for November 7, 1850, William D. Murphy Account Books, vol. 3: 18491851, NYHS; RT RT, September 19, 1850; Stonington Reports, 58.67 Nevins, 1:3335; Strong, 2:17. Nevins, 1:3335; Strong, 2:17.68 NYTr NYTr, October 1, 1850. For a ship-by-ship review of all of CVs operations on the Atlantic, see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 22249. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 22249.69 Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 185060," Richard W. Van Alstyne, "British Diplomacy and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 185060," JModH JModH 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," 11, no. 2 (June 1939): 14983; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," JModH JModH 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078. 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078.70 Ralph W. Hidy "The Organization and Functions of Anglo-American Merchant Bankers," Ralph W. Hidy "The Organization and Functions of Anglo-American Merchant Bankers," JEH JEH 1 (Supplement: 1 (Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History) The Tasks of Economic History) (December 1941): 5366; Ralph W. Hidy, "The House of Baring and American Trade," (December 1941): 5366; Ralph W. Hidy, "The House of Baring and American Trade," Bulletin of the Business Historical Society Bulletin of the Business Historical Society 9, no. 5 (October 1835): 715. 9, no. 5 (October 1835): 715.71 JLW and H. L. Routh to Baring Brothers, Rothschild & Sons, Finlay Hodgson & Co., Capel & Co., Sir J. H. Pelly, George Peabody Esq., London, July 21, 1852, vol. 10: Letters Received, January 1851 to August 1853, JMC-P; Baring Brothers to Thomas W. Ward, October 15, 1850, reel 63: Letterbook, April 1848 to April 1851, BB. JLW and H. L. Routh to Baring Brothers, Rothschild & Sons, Finlay Hodgson & Co., Capel & Co., Sir J. H. Pelly, George Peabody Esq., London, July 21, 1852, vol. 10: Letters Received, January 1851 to August 1853, JMC-P; Baring Brothers to Thomas W. Ward, October 15, 1850, reel 63: Letterbook, April 1848 to April 1851, BB.72 JLW and H. L. Routh to Rothschild & Sons, July 17, 1852, vol. 10: Letters Received, January 1851 to August 1853, JMC-P; JLW and H. L. Routh to Rothschild & Sons, July 17, 1852, vol. 10: Letters Received, January 1851 to August 1853, JMC-P; LT LT, October 15, 16, 1850.73 Baring Brothers to Thomas W. Ward, October 15, 1850, reel 63: Letterbook, April 1848 to April 1851, BB. Baring Brothers to Thomas W. Ward, October 15, 1850, reel 63: Letterbook, April 1848 to April 1851, BB.74 Ibid., and James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co., October 29, 1850, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB. On August Belmont and New York society, see Eric Homberger, Ibid., and James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co., October 29, 1850, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB. On August Belmont and New York society, see Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 1748. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 1748.75 Edward Harold Mott, Edward Harold Mott, Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 460; entry for February 3, 1849, Hone ms. (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 460; entry for February 3, 1849, Hone ms.76 James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co, October 29, 1850, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB. James G. King to Messrs Baring Bros. & Co, October 29, 1850, reel 41: Letters Received from New York, BB.77 NYH NYH, November 15, 1850; Farmers' Cabinet Farmers' Cabinet, October 31, 1850.

Eight Star of the West Star of the West 1 Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal, October 8, 1850; Strong, 2:1516.2 New York Evangelist New York Evangelist, January 3, 1850; SA SA, January 5, 1850; Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal, October 8, 1850.3 McPherson, 6477; Strong, 2:212. McPherson, 6477; Strong, 2:212.4 Littell's Living Age Littell's Living Age, November 2, 1850.5 SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; LW Dictation. SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; LW Dictation.6 NYH NYH, December 26, 27, 1850; entry for December 26, 1850, Joseph N. Allen Diary (Allen Diary), BL. See also LT LT, January 21, 1851.7 See Allen's obituary, See Allen's obituary, NYT NYT, March 15, 1883.8 Allen Diary; Ephraim George E. Squier, Allen Diary; Ephraim George E. Squier, Nicaragua: Its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the Proposed Interoceanic Canal Nicaragua: Its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the Proposed Interoceanic Canal (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 56, (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 56, 724; Harper's New Monthly Magazine 724; Harper's New Monthly Magazine, December 1854. On CVs selection of Punta Arenas, see NYH NYH, August 15, 1854.9 Allen Diary. The Allen Diary. The Orus Orus would soon be wrecked on the river; as a result, the vessel that CV piloted on this occasion has regularly been misidentified as the would soon be wrecked on the river; as a result, the vessel that CV piloted on this occasion has regularly been misidentified as the Director Director. See Lane, 92, and Folkman, 26. However, the Allen Diary makes clear that the Director Director was already on the lake. was already on the lake.10 Allen Diary; Allen Diary; HW HW, March 5, 1859; SA SA, February 8, 1851; NYH NYH, January 22, 1851.11 Allen Diary; Allen Diary; NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1851.12 Squier, 1368; Allen Diary. Squier, 1368; Allen Diary.13 Allen Diary; Allen Diary; NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1851.14 Allen Diary; Allen Diary; NYTr NYTr, February 10, 1851; NYH NYH, February 1, 27, 1851.15 Allen Diary. Allen Diary.16 John Guthrie, John Guthrie, A History of Marine Engineering A History of Marine Engineering (London: Hutchinson Educational, 1971), 17, 44, 60; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, (London: Hutchinson Educational, 1971), 17, 44, 60; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 69 69, 98101, 1056, 153, 223; LT LT, March 18, 1851.17 NYH NYH, February 23, 1851; LT LT, March 18, 1851; SA SA, March 29, 1851. A Darius Davison supposedly accepted the bet; no more was ever heard of him.18 SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8; Congressional Globe Congressional Globe, January 17, 1851.19 NYH NYH, March 6, 1851.20 NYT NYT, February 7, 1856; SED 50, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 8. Law also became a heavy investor in Aspinwall's Panama Railroad, the largest buyer of the company's bonds; see NYTr NYTr, June 16, 1851. For Law's efforts to improve the speed of the mail delivery under such threats as Vanderbilt's, see George Law to N. K. Hall, July 21, 1851, SR 326, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2. For details on the U.S. Mail and Pacific Mail assets and operations, see SR 292, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1.21 Daniel T. Rodgers, Daniel T. Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 18501920 The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 18501920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1974), 19, notes, "As late as 1850 the centers of manufacturing remained the home and workshop." (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1974), 19, notes, "As late as 1850 the centers of manufacturing remained the home and workshop."22 RGD, NYC, 316:48, 81. RGD, NYC, 316:48, 81.23 Heyl, 1:123, 219, 307, 331; NYTr, February 10, 25, May 27, 1851; Heyl, 1:123, 219, 307, 331; NYTr, February 10, 25, May 27, 1851; LT LT, June 30, July 16, 23, 1851; P. T. Barnum, Struggles and Triumphs; or, Forty Years' Recollections of P. T. Barnum Struggles and Triumphs; or, Forty Years' Recollections of P. T. Barnum (Buffalo, N.Y: Warren, Johnson, 1873), 3623; John A. Butler, (Buffalo, N.Y: Warren, Johnson, 1873), 3623; John A. Butler, Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 1778. Tonnage figures tend to vary by source, and should be viewed as approximate. (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 1778. Tonnage figures tend to vary by source, and should be viewed as approximate.24 LT LT, August 28, 1851; AltaC AltaC, August 31, September 2, 1851; Folkman, 2930.25 LT LT, August 28, 1851; AltaC AltaC, August 31, September 2, 1851; Folkman, 2930. A debate raged over the Nicaragua route in the San Francisco newspapers in early September. Rabe's fellow passenger, Harris T. Fitch, found the crossing entirely satisfactory, and said that Rabe's complaints only started after he was forced to pay for the second half of his journey to California.26 NYTr NYTr, August 1, 1851. Diplomat John Bozman Kerr confirmed that in July 1851 the Nicaraguan government was discussing a plan to annul the charter of the canal company; Manning, 4:265.27 Burns, 43, 47; Burns, 43, 47; NYTr NYTr, September 5, 6, 24, October 7, 1851; Manning, 4:2289, 235.28 NYTr NYTr, October 7, 9, 1851. The bribe figure is from NYTr NYTr, December 2, 1851. Newspaper reporters in the mid-nineteenth century were not particularly exacting, but these accounts fit with other reports of White's methods. See also White's testimony, NYH NYH, October 17, 1856.29 Compilation of Executive Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence Relative to a Trans-Isthmian Canal in Central America Compilation of Executive Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence Relative to a Trans-Isthmian Canal in Central America, vol. 2 (New York: Evening Post Printing, 1900), 7147; Manning, 4:2356; NYTr NYTr, September 5, 1851. Kerr's official correspondence is rife with racial judgments of the Nicaraguans; on March 15, 1852, for example, he wrote of "the ill-blood against each other, natural to mixed races;" Manning, 4:267.30 NYTr NYTr, September 26, 1851.31 NYT NYT, November 15, 1851; NYTr NYTr, October 9, December 15, 1851; Manning, 4:2567, 266-7; James H Quimby v. CV James H Quimby v. CV, November 21, 1855, file 18551313, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. On CVs percentage as ATC agent, see JLW's explanation in George S. Salls v. CV George S. Salls v. CV, November 17, 1856, file 1855-#1226, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.32 Soule, 35964, 37985. Soule, 35964, 37985.33 MM MM, December 1854; NYT NYT, July 3, 1860; Memoirs of William T. Sherman 1860; Memoirs of William T. Sherman (New York: Da Capo, 1984, orig. pub. 1875), 95105, 11824; Soule, 62630; Kemble, 71, 1523, 206; Richard Maxwell Brown, (New York: Da Capo, 1984, orig. pub. 1875), 95105, 11824; Soule, 62630; Kemble, 71, 1523, 206; Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 12340. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 12340.34 James P. Delgado, James P. Delgado, To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the California Gold Rush To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the California Gold Rush (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 767. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 767.35 CV to Jonas Winchester, October 15, 1851, Winchester Papers, California Historical Society. It is reported by two of William C. Ralston's biographers that CV asked him in 1851 to investigate a railroad proposed by a group of Californians; see David Lavender, CV to Jonas Winchester, October 15, 1851, Winchester Papers, California Historical Society. It is reported by two of William C. Ralston's biographers that CV asked him in 1851 to investigate a railroad proposed by a group of Californians; see David Lavender, Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C Ralston and Early San Francisco Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C Ralston and Early San Francisco (Palo Alto: American West, 1975), 58, and Julian Dana, (Palo Alto: American West, 1975), 58, and Julian Dana, The Man Who Built San Francisco: A Study of Ralston's Journey with Banners The Man Who Built San Francisco: A Study of Ralston's Journey with Banners (New York: Macmillan, 1936), 41. (New York: Macmillan, 1936), 41.36 People of the State of New York v. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Anthony Bird, Stephen Williams, Elias Butler, Jacob Van Cleef and Jacob Arnold People of the State of New York v. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Anthony Bird, Stephen Williams, Elias Butler, Jacob Van Cleef and Jacob Arnold, November 22, 1851, New York Supreme Court, box SI-68, NYMA; NYT NYT, March 16, 21, 1853, February 12, 1855; Lane, 71.37 A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855), 46; Kemble, 4652, 55. (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855), 46; Kemble, 4652, 55.38 Kemble, 46, 547. As Kemble shows, the mail monopoly was immensely lucrative. In July 1850, Pacific Mail paid a dividend of 50 percent ($50 per share, with the par value of each share being $100). CVs competition cut fares from a high of $300 for first cabin to as low as $80. Kemble, 46, 547. As Kemble shows, the mail monopoly was immensely lucrative. In July 1850, Pacific Mail paid a dividend of 50 percent ($50 per share, with the par value of each share being $100). CVs competition cut fares from a high of $300 for first cabin to as low as $80.39 CV v. the New York and Staten Island Steam Ferry Company, William B. Townsend, George Law, John J. Boyd, Levi Cook, Robert C Wetmore, Jeptha B. Parks, John Burgher, David Marfleet, Gottlieb Kiesele, and Henry M. Western CV v. the New York and Staten Island Steam Ferry Company, William B. Townsend, George Law, John J. Boyd, Levi Cook, Robert C Wetmore, Jeptha B. Parks, John Burgher, David Marfleet, Gottlieb Kiesele, and Henry M. Western, August 23, 1851, New York Supreme Court, fold. 10, box 1, Ferry and Railroad Collection, Staten Island Institute of Arts & Sciences; CV v. George Law and Others CV v. George Law and Others, August 16, 1851, file CV-V-20, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. The report of retaliation was published three decades later in an obituary of Jeremiah Simonson, NYT NYT, February 13, 1887, which claimed that Simonson led the attack on Law's pier.40 SR 326, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2; SR 326, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2; LT LT, October 25, 1851; Lane, 97; Kemble, 61.41 NYT NYT, November 27, 1851; Folkman, 334. Kemble, 61, who displays a clear bias in favor of Pacific Mail, shows that workers on the Panama route genuinely believed that the Nicaragua route was much worse. It was not, at least until the completion of the Panama Railroad in 1855. For an example of passengers publicly protesting conditions on the Nicaragua route, see AltaC AltaC, January 15, 1852. See also the testimony in James H Quimby v. CV James H Quimby v. CV, November 13, 1854, file 1854-#1242, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC, and James H Quimby v. CV and James H Quimby v. CV, November 21, 1855, file 1855-#1313, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.42 LT LT, December 4, 1851.43 NYTr NYTr, October 23, 1851.44 LW Dictation; LW Dictation; LT LT, December 4, 1851; NYTr NYTr, December 2, 1851.45 LT LT, December 4, 1851; NYTr NYTr, December 2, 1851.46 LT LT, January 2, 1852; Manning, 7:420; Mario Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," JModH JModH 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078. 36, no. 3 (September 1964): 26078.47 CV quoted in Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty;" Mary Wilhelmine Williams, CV quoted in Rodriguez, "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty;" Mary Wilhelmine Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy: 18151915 Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy: 18151915 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), 11920. (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), 11920.48 SED 6, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 4; SED 6, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 4; LT LT, December 17, 1851, January 2, 1852.49 LT LT, December 17, 30, 1851, January 2, 1852; NYT NYT, December 17, 1851, February 14, 1852; SED 6, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 4; SED 30, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 7; Manning, 7:734; NYH NYH, December 6, 1851; Williams, 1202.50 LT LT, January 29, 1852; Manning, 7:448; Richmond F. Brown, "Charles Lennox Wyke and the Clayton-Bulwer Formula in Central America, 18521860," The Americas The Americas 47, no. 4 (April 1991): 41145; Williams, 1203. Rodriguez, in "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," notes that one reason the British recoiled so quickly is that the cabinet received a report that Greytown had become largely American in population, which made the dispute something of an internal U.S. affair. 47, no. 4 (April 1991): 41145; Williams, 1203. Rodriguez, in "The 'Prometheus' and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty," notes that one reason the British recoiled so quickly is that the cabinet received a report that Greytown had become largely American in population, which made the dispute something of an internal U.S. affair.51 New York Evangelist New York Evangelist, August 28, 1873; HC HC, June 7, 1851; entry for August 4, 1851, Strong, 2:60. For evidence of Clark's early law practice, see Horace F. Clark to Lauristen Hall, July 20, 1839, Hall Papers, HL, and HFC Misc. File, NYPL. See also the entry for Charles Antonio Rapallo, National Cyclopedia of American Biography National Cyclopedia of American Biography (New York: James T. White & Co., 1904). HFC's name appears in a list of Democratic leaders, (New York: James T. White & Co., 1904). HFC's name appears in a list of Democratic leaders, USMDR USMDR, June 1851. I am indebted to Maira Liriano of the New York Public Library for finding the wedding date, which had long eluded me; see EP EP, April 7, 1848. For a vivid description of a typical fashionable New York wedding, see Eclectic Magazine Eclectic Magazine, July 1850.52 CT CT, June 21, 1873. For an earlier and more elaborate version of this story, see Medbery 1601.53 NYT NYT, December 22, 29, 1877; Charles H. Wright v. Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr Charles H. Wright v. Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr., January 21, 1856, file LJ-1856-V-100, Supreme Court Judgments, NYCC; NYTr NYTr, March 28, 1878. A reference to CJV's poor health appears in John P. Hale to Charles Sumner, March 18, 1854, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS.54 NYW NYW, November 13, 14, 1877.55 Croffut, 589. Croffut, 589.56 NYH NYH, December 6, 7, 1851.57 This information about CV's office and operations can be found in one thick file, This information about CV's office and operations can be found in one thick file, James H Quimby v. CV James H Quimby v. CV, November 21, 1855, file 1855-#1313, and George S. Salls v. CV George S. Salls v. CV, November 17, 1856, file 1855-#1226, both Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. See also Heyl, 1: 219. On Robert Schuyler, see United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce, July 15, 1854.58 Senate Journal, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., January 27, 1852; Senate Journal, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., January 27, 1852; National Era National Era, March 4, 1852; NYT NYT, February 5, 19, March 10, 29, 1852; Farmer's Cabinet Farmer's Cabinet, March 18, 1852; BE BE, February 26, 1852; Heyl, 1:307, 407, 413.59 A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law A Sketch of Events in the Life of George Law (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855), 46; F. N. Otis, (New York: J. C. Derby, 1855), 46; F. N. Otis, Isthmus of Panama: History of the Panama Railroad and of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company Isthmus of Panama: History of the Panama Railroad and of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1867), 33; (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1867), 33; NYT NYT, April 6, May 19, 21, 1852.60 NYT NYT, February 7, 1856; MacDonald lawsuit. CV also collected 20 percent of the $35 Accessory Transit fare, as JLW explained in George S. Salls v. CV George S. Salls v. CV, November 17, 1856, file 1855-#1226, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC. For other commentary on the bitterness of the Law-CV rivalry, see NYT NYT, July 19, 1852. CV himself noted that faster shipments of specie resulted in savings in interest payments; CV to WLM, October 10, 1853, vol. 43: Letters Received, September 28 to October 24, 1853, WLMP.61 NYT NYT, March 13, 1852.62 NYT NYT, March 31, 1852; James H Quimby v. CV James H Quimby v. CV, November 21, 1855, file 1855-#1313, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; George S. Salls v. CV George S. Salls v. CV, November 17, 1856, file 1855-#1226, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.63 NYT, July NYT, July 7, 15, August 20, 1852; 7, 15, August 20, 1852; Liberator Liberator, July 9, 1852; National Era National Era, July 15, 1852; NYTr NYTr, August 20, 1852; BE BE, February 26, 1853.64 NYTr NYTr, March 30, April 3, August 13, 1852; Orville W. Childs, Report of the Survey and Estimates of the Cost of Construction of the Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal Report of the Survey and Estimates of the Cost of Construction of the Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal (New York: William C. Bryant, 1852); (New York: William C. Bryant, 1852); NYH NYH, April 1, 1852; JLW and H. L. Routh, Commissioners of the American Atlantic & Pacific Ship Canal Co., to Baring Brothers, Rothschild & Sons, Finlay Hodgson & Co., Capel & Co., Sir J. H. Pelly, George Peabody Esq., London, July 21, 1852, reel 9: Letters Received, 1849 to November 1853, BB.65 NYTr NYTr, August 23, 1852.66 NYTr NYTr, August 24, 25, 1852. The share total comes from testimony by company secretary Isaac Lea, James H. Quimby v. CV James H. Quimby v. CV, November 21, 1855, file 1855-#1313, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.67 Joshua Bates to Baring Brothers, July 23, 1852, reel 9: Letters Received, 1849 to November 1853, BB. JLW's statements on his return were clearly fraudulent, so I believe my conclusion concerning his actions have a sound basis. My assumption that CV was not in on JLW's plan, however, is based on indirect evidence: his vocal hatred for JLW, which will be seen shortly, and the timing of his attack on the ATC stock, coming so soon after JLW's return. The newspapers published an accurate account of the mission to London in December; Joshua Bates to Baring Brothers, July 23, 1852, reel 9: Letters Received, 1849 to November 1853, BB. JLW's statements on his return were clearly fraudulent, so I believe my conclusion concerning his actions have a sound basis. My assumption that CV was not in on JLW's plan, however, is based on indirect evidence: his vocal hatred for JLW, which will be seen shortly, and the timing of his attack on the ATC stock, coming so soon after JLW's return. The newspapers published an accurate account of the mission to London in December; NYT NYT, December 3, 1852.68 NYT NYT, April 6, 1855.69 NYT NYT, August 27, 1852; NYH NYH, April 6, 1855.70 NYT NYT, March 29, August 27, 1852; NYTr NYTr, June 2, 1852; NYH NYH, April 6, 1855; Manning, 4:266.71 NYT NYT, September 14, 18, 1852; RGD, NYC, 341:184; Medbery, 312. Decades later, Daniel Drew testified that he had often seen CV at Robinson's office; NYW NYW, March 9, 1878.72 NYT NYT, September 18, 1852, April 6, 1855; NYH NYH, April 6, 1855. For an excellent account of nineteenth-century Wall Street, in particular purchasing on margin, see Medbery, 5361.73 EP EP, November 17, 1852; NYH NYH, November 18, 1852; NYTr NYTr, August 20, 1852, January 3, 6, 1853; NYT NYT, November 19, 1852; Manning, 4:356, 3257; Compilation of Executive Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence Relative to a Trans-Isthmian Canal in Central America Compilation of Executive Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence Relative to a Trans-Isthmian Canal in Central America, vol. 2 (New York: Evening Post Printing, 1900), 8189.74 NYT NYT, October 4, 1852.75 NYT NYT, April 6, May 8, 1855; NYTr NYTr, September 27, 1852. To follow the history of these negotiations as they played out in the press, see NYT see NYT, September 25, 28, 1852; NYTr NYTr, September 25, 27, 1852. For the quote on Allen, see RGD, NYC, 343:316.76 NYT NYT, November 10, December 24, 1852. For a reference to "sick Transit," see NYTr NYTr, June 7, 1852.77 NYTr NYTr, December 28, 1852, January 7, 1853; NYH NYH, December 29, 30, 1852; NYT NYT, December 30, 1852.78 NYH NYH, December 29, 1852; NYT NYT, December 30, 1852.79 NYT NYT, December 30, 1852, February 15, 1853; BE BE, February 26, 1853.

Nine North Star 1 LW Dictation; LW Dictation; National Era National Era, April 6, 1854.2 NYH NYH, April 6, 1855.3 NYS NYS, November 13, 1877.4 NYT NYT, April 6, 1855.5 NYTr NYTr, March 30, 1878.6 John Overton Choules, John Overton Choules, The Cruise of the Steam Yacht The Cruise of the Steam Yacht North Star (New York: Evans & Dickerson, 1854), 178. North Star (New York: Evans & Dickerson, 1854), 178.7 CV to Hamilton Fish, February 15, 1853, vol. 32, Hamilton Fish Papers, LOC. CV to Hamilton Fish, February 15, 1853, vol. 32, Hamilton Fish Papers, LOC.8 NYT NYT, January 21, February 15, 1853; NYTr NYTr, February 15, 1853. As a further sign of CV's closeness to CM, one source describes a fancy ball that CM hosted in 1852, attended by the family of CVs son-in-law William K. Thorn; David Lavender, Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C. Ralston and Early San Francisco Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C. Ralston and Early San Francisco (Palo Ato: American West, 1975), 60. (Palo Ato: American West, 1975), 60.9 ATC v. CKG ATC v. CKG, September 13, 1858, file 1858-#53, Superior Court, NYCC; Deposition of Theodore A. Wakeman, MacDonald Lawsuit.10 BE BE, February 26, 1853.11 NYTr NYTr, March 18, 1878.12 NYT NYT, March 16, 21, May 20, 1853, February 12, 1855; William McClean v. Minthorne Tompkins, the Staten Island and New-York Ferry Company, and Others William McClean v. Minthorne Tompkins, the Staten Island and New-York Ferry Company, and Others [inc. George Law and Sarah A., His Wife, HFC], Papers on Appeals: July 14, 1856, and November 3, 1856, Supreme Court, Second Judicial District, fold. 5, box 2, Ferry and Railroad Collection, Staten Island Institute of Arts & Sciences; RGD, NYC, 374:1; [inc. George Law and Sarah A., His Wife, HFC], Papers on Appeals: July 14, 1856, and November 3, 1856, Supreme Court, Second Judicial District, fold. 5, box 2, Ferry and Railroad Collection, Staten Island Institute of Arts & Sciences; RGD, NYC, 374:1; Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 Petition of C Vanderbilt for Confirmation of Letters Patent, Issued April 3, 1816 (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL. (New York: S. S. Chatterton, 1852), NYPL.13 NYTr NYTr, March 18, 1878. Note also that CV sold to Van Pelt extensive property on the East River, apparently the grounds on which the Simonson shipyard stood. See New York Life Insurance & Trust Co. v. CV, Freeman Campbell and Mary Ann, His Wife, Rutherford Moody and Eunice P., His Wife, Jacob J. Van Pelt and Sarah, His Wife, and Jay Jarvis, President of the Citizen's Bank New York Life Insurance & Trust Co. v. CV, Freeman Campbell and Mary Ann, His Wife, Rutherford Moody and Eunice P., His Wife, Jacob J. Van Pelt and Sarah, His Wife, and Jay Jarvis, President of the Citizen's Bank, September 25, 1855, file PL 1855-N14, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. Personal wealth was extraordinarily difficult to ascertain. My statement that the $11 million figure sounds accurate is based on a close examination of surviving evidence of CVs business transactions during this period. My belief that this would make him one of the wealthiest men in the country is based on an extensive reading of the RGD reports, as well as other sources.14 NYH NYH, April 29, 1853; NYT NYT, March 11, 1853; SA SA, April 30, May 7, 1853. See also CT CT, May 4, 1853, and a quotation from the New York Illustrated News New York Illustrated News, April 9, 1853, in Choules, 18.15 NYTr NYTr, June 2, 1852.16 Quoted in Quoted in The Knickerbocker The Knickerbocker, July 1853. See also Choules, 1822.17 SA SA, May 7, 1853.18 NYT NYT, April 15, May 13, 1853.19 Choules, 28. Choules, 28.20 Circular Circular, May 21, June 1, 1853; NYT NYT, May 21, 1853; SA SA, May 28, 1853; Choules, 256; Richard Schell to WLM, May 21, 1853, vol. 37: Letters Received, May 1430, 1853, WLMP.21 Choules, 26; Choules, 26; NYT NYT, May 21, 1853; Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times, June 25, 1853.22 See CVs letter to this effect, See CVs letter to this effect, NYH NYH, September 28, 1853.23 JLW to WLM, April 25, 1853, vol. 35: Letters Received, April 22 to May 2, 1853, WLMP. JLW to WLM, April 25, 1853, vol. 35: Letters Received, April 22 to May 2, 1853, WLMP.24 NYH NYH, May 28, 30, 1853.25 NYT NYT, July 21, 1853.26 RGD, NYC, 341:184; Medbery, 312. RGD may have had its dates wrong; in July, Robinson was reported as the head of the "bull clique" in Erie; RGD, NYC, 341:184; Medbery, 312. RGD may have had its dates wrong; in July, Robinson was reported as the head of the "bull clique" in Erie; NYH NYH, July 29, 1853.27 NYT NYT, March 16, 1852; National Magazine National Magazine, March 1853; Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001), 678, 2459. (New York: Free Press, 2001), 678, 2459.28 NYH NYH, July 29, 1853.29 NYH NYH, June 17, 1853; Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times, June 25, 1853; NYT NYT, September 24, 1853.30 Quotation in Quotation in Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times, June 25, 1853; Choules, 30, 245. The letter quoted in Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times names no author, but some of the language is identical to that of Choules's book. names no author, but some of the language is identical to that of Choules's book.31 CT CT, June 21, 1853. For other coverage, see in particular press coverage in late June and early July, such as Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times, June 25, July 2, 1853. On the North Star North Star's tour in general, see Choules, passim.32 Choules, 47, 4951; Muriel E. Hidy, Choules, 47, 4951; Muriel E. Hidy, George Peabody: Merchant and Financier, 18291854 George Peabody: Merchant and Financier, 18291854 (New York: Arno Press, 1978), 356. CV attempted to return the favor to Peabody, inviting him and other notables for a jaunt aboard the (New York: Arno Press, 1978), 356. CV attempted to return the favor to Peabody, inviting him and other notables for a jaunt aboard the North Star North Star. Also, though CV brought his own gold, Peabody facilitated his financial transactions in England. See George Peabody to CV, June 13, 1853, ser. I, letterbook 42, mss. 181, George Peabody Papers, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Mass.33 Choules, 51, 56, 118, 145, 2224, 2413, 2478, 262, 322. Powers's fee was named in Choules, 51, 56, 118, 145, 2224, 2413, 2478, 262, 322. Powers's fee was named in PS PS, September 8, 1853.34 RGD, NYC, 374:1; Choules, 32, 71. RGD, NYC, 374:1; Choules, 32, 71.35 LW Dictation; Croffut, 108. LW Dictation; Croffut, 108.36 Choules, 82, 103; Croffut, 108. Choules, 82, 103; Croffut, 108.37 Choules, 324. Choules, 324.38 Choules, 351. Choules, 351.39 Croffut, 689. Croffut, 689.40 Choules, 34850. Choules, 34850.41 NYT NYT, August 12, 1853. NYT NYT only referred to CM as "the Vanderbilt agent." The Nicaragua line was still known as the Vanderbilt line. The other plausible candidates, Daniel Allen and CKG, were in Europe and California, respectively. only referred to CM as "the Vanderbilt agent." The Nicaragua line was still known as the Vanderbilt line. The other plausible candidates, Daniel Allen and CKG, were in Europe and California, respectively.42 NYT NYT, August 12, 1853; NYTr, September 13, 1855; Spirit of the Times Spirit of the Times, August 11, 1849.43 NYT NYT, September 24, 1853; NYH NYH, September 24, 1853.44 NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. Lane believed the letter was real and reprinted it without caveat, 109. Lane also wrote that CKG joined CM in ousting CV; as I will discuss in Chapter Ten, I believe that this was not the case. In this I am contradicting virtually every historical account of this episode.45 NYH NYH, September 28, 1853. In assessing CVs dispute with the ATC, Folkman, 535, concludes that CV was in the wrong-that he had pocketed roughly $500,000 during his agency. Simple theft was out of keeping with CVs personality or methods, whereas blatant lying was the hallmark of JLW. The numbers reported by the NYH NYH during the airing of this argument cannot be trusted. The ATC later paid CV to settle the dispute-hardly the step to be expected from the victim of a half-million-dollar theft. during the airing of this argument cannot be trusted. The ATC later paid CV to settle the dispute-hardly the step to be expected from the victim of a half-million-dollar theft.46 NYTr NYTr, September 30, 1853; NYH NYH, October 27, 28, November 3, 1853. For CM's office, see an ad in the NYT NYT, December 17, 1855. A curious debate arose in the NYH NYH, October 31November 2, 1853, over whether the ATC legally could own the steamships CV had sold it. Only a few papers from the lawsuit survive; see, for example, CV v. ATC CV v. ATC, January 12, 1854, file PL 1854-V9, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.47 Circular Circular, July 8, 1854; NYT NYT, July 4, 1854; USDM USDM, July 15, 1854; HC HC, July 10, 1854. On the loss of the Independence Independence, see AltaC AltaC, April 1, 1853, and a report from the San Francisco Whig San Francisco Whig, reprinted in the LT LT, May 13, 1853.48 NYT NYT, October 12, 1853; EP EP, quoted in the HC HC, October 17, 1853; RGD, NYC, 341:184. Drew was not new to transactions with the Erie Railroad. As early as February 10, 1842, he and Isaac Newton supplied a steamboat connection to the Erie's terminus at Piermont; see Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York & Erie Rail Road Co Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York & Erie Rail Road Co., September 10, 1842, file 1842-#331, Superior Court, NYCC.49 LW Dictation. LW Dictation.50 CV v. ATC CV v. ATC, January 12, 1854, file PL 1854-V9, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; NYH NYH, December 2, 7, 8, 1853; NYTr NYTr, December 9, 1853.51 NYH NYH, January 6, 7, 1854.52 NYT NYT, January 17, 23, 1854; NYH NYH, November 11, 18, 1853. William Thorn held a mortgage on half the value of the Uncle Sam Uncle Sam and and Yankee Blade Yankee Blade, for $130,000 advanced to Mills; I am assuming that Thorn, as CVs son-in-law, served as his agent in this matter. See RGD, NYC, 374:118.53 Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union Ordeal of the Union, vol. 2: A House Dividing, 18521857 A House Dividing, 18521857 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 501; CV to WLM, October 10, 1853, vol. 43: Letters Received, September 28 to October 24, 1853, WLMP. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 501; CV to WLM, October 10, 1853, vol. 43: Letters Received, September 28 to October 24, 1853, WLMP.54 Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union Ordeal of the Union, vol. 1: Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 18471852 Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 18471852 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 3940, 160. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1947), 3940, 160.55 Joseph L. Williams, Washington, to James N. Reynolds, New York, January 23, 1854, quoted in HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; Joseph L. Williams, Washington, to James N. Reynolds, New York, January 23, 1854, quoted in HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; NYT NYT, January 17, 1854. For an example of Williams's lobbying, see NYT NYT, July 26, 1852.56 NYT NYT, January 17, 1854.57 Joseph L. Williams, Washington, to James N. Reynolds, New York, March 21, 1854, quoted in HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; Croffut, 109. Joseph L. Williams, Washington, to James N. Reynolds, New York, March 21, 1854, quoted in HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; Croffut, 109.58 JLW to WLM, February 22, 1854, vol. 48: Letters Received, February 6 to March 15, 1854, WLMP. JLW to WLM, February 22, 1854, vol. 48: Letters Received, February 6 to March 15, 1854, WLMP.59 When Nicaragua threatened to tax specie shipments, for example, Marcy intervened; Manning, 4:3957. When Nicaragua threatened to tax specie shipments, for example, Marcy intervened; Manning, 4:3957.60 Folkman, 49, 549. Folkman, 49, 549.61 NYT NYT, March 14, May 18, 1854.62 NYT NYT, July 25, 29, 1854; NYH NYH, April 26, 1853; July 25, 1854; Folkman, 637; James M. Woods, "Expansionism as Diplomacy: The Career of Solon Borland in Central America, 18531854," The Americas The Americas 40, no. 3 (January 1984): 399415; Nevins, 40, no. 3 (January 1984): 399415; Nevins, House Dividing House Dividing, 3656. The destruction of Greytown followed on earlier conflicts with the municipality; on February 21, 1853, the town's authorities led a mob in an attack on Punta Arenas, which destroyed some of the ATC buildings. See SED 8, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 4; Harper's New Monthly Magazine Harper's New Monthly Magazine, December 1854; NYT NYT, March 16, April 14, 1853; LT LT, March 30, 1853; National Era National Era, April 7, 1853. The outbreak of the Crimean War, and the fact that Greytown was largely American in population, muted the British response to the destruction of the town; see George L. Bernstein, "Special Relationship and Appeasement: Liberal Policy towards America in the Age of Palmerston," Historical Journal Historical Journal 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550. 41, no. 3 (September 1998): 72550.63 CV v. William C. Moon CV v. William C. Moon, June 7, 1854, file L J-1854-M-398, Supreme Court Judgments; CV v. Reuben C Stone CV v. Reuben C Stone, September 12, 1854, file L J-1854-S-19, Supreme Court Judgments; CV v. John C Thompson and Minthorne Tompkins CV v. John C Thompson and Minthorne Tompkins, September 26, 1854, file J L-1854-T-172, Supreme Court Judgments; CV v. Spring Valley Shot & Lead Manufacturing Company CV v. Spring Valley Shot & Lead Manufacturing Company, April 21, 1855, file L J-1855-S-206, July 26, 1855, file L J-1855-S-208, May 2, 1855, file L J-1855-S-212, Supreme Court Judgments; all NYCC. See also Loan Agreement from CV to Mary Parmelisa M. Van Winkle, April 1, 1854, CV-NYPL; LW Dictation. On Vanderbilt's openness to callers, see Smith, 1234.64 John P. Hale to Charles Sumner, March 18, 1854, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS; Henry Clews, John P. Hale to Charles Sumner, March 18, 1854, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS; Henry Clews, Fifty Years in Wall Street Fifty Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing Company, 1908), 3756; McPherson, 12130. (New York: Irving Publishing Company, 1908), 3756; McPherson, 12130.65 NYS NYS, December 19, 1877; NYTr NYTr, March 30, 1878.66 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYT NYT, May 31, 1854; NYTr NYTr, March 28, 1878. For Clark's settlement of the North America North America lawsuits, see a set of 128 cases with identical outcomes, such as lawsuits, see a set of 128 cases with identical outcomes, such as George J. Lathrop v. CV and Daniel Drew George J. Lathrop v. CV and Daniel Drew, May 4, 1854, file LJ. 1854-v-131, Supreme Court Law Judgments, NYCC.67 EP EP quoted in the quoted in the NYT NYT, June 1, 1854; NYT NYT, July 7, 1854; NYTr NYTr, March 30, 1878. Much later, Cornelius J. Vanderbilt testified that this internment was "partially voluntary," and that it was his father who sent him; NYW NYW, December 20, 1877.68 NYS NYS, December 19, 1877, March 2, 1878.69 Strong, 2:178; Smith, 16970. Halttunen writes, Strong, 2:178; Smith, 16970. Halttunen writes, Confidence Men Confidence Men, 166, "In the 1850s and 1860s, polite hypocrisy was achieving cultural legitimacy."70 EP EP quoted in quoted in HC HC, July 3, 1854; BM BM, July 1854.71 NYT NYT, July 4, 1854; EP EP, quoted in HC HC, July 7, 1854.72 United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce, July 15, 1854; NYT NYT, July 6, 1854; EP EP, quoted in HC HC, July 7, 1854; Circular Circular, July 8, 1854.73 United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce, July 15, 1854; Strong, 2:1789; PS PS, July 13, 1854.74 NYT NYT, February 3, 1855; CV v. HRR CV v. HRR, July 16, 1858, file LJ-1858-N-41, Supreme Court Judgments, NYCC. See also entry for June 9, 1857, Directors' Minutes, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. See also CVs letter to the HC HC, August 3, 1854.75 BM BM, March 1856; HC HC, August 13, 1857; Smith, 171. See also NYT NYT, March 11, 1856, and New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, March 27, 1856.76 Indianola Bulletin Indianola Bulletin quoted in quoted in Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette, May 27, June 17, 1854; San Antonio Ledger San Antonio Ledger, June 15, 1854. See also Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette, July 29, 1854; Baughman, 81. See also James P. Baughman, "The Evolution of Rail-Water Systems of Transportation in the Gulf Southwest, 18361890," Journal of Southern History Journal of Southern History 34, no. 3 (August 1968): 35781. 34, no. 3 (August 1968): 35781.77 NYT NYT, July 18, 1854, February 7, 1856, July 12, 1860; Home Journal Home Journal, April 8, 1854; RGD, NYC, 342:300. Kemble, 88, mistakenly places the time of Law's departure from the company in March 1853. Roberts also stood as the Whig candidate for mayor in 1852; NYT NYT, October 30, 1852.78 RGD, NYC, 374:118. The song, "Humbug Steamship Companies," is quoted in Kemble, 68; see also 6971. RGD, NYC, 374:118. The song, "Humbug Steamship Companies," is quoted in Kemble, 68; see also 6971.79 NYH NYH, August 30, 31, September 1, 1854; NYTr NYTr, November 11, 21, 1855; JoC JoC, November 21, 1855; NYT NYT, February 7, 1856; AltaC AltaC, October 2, 1854; RGD, NYC, 374: 118; Folkman, 567.80 NYTr NYTr, December 25, 1854.81 Weekly AltaC Weekly AltaC, October 7, 1854.

Ten Ariel 1 LW Dictation. LW Dictation.2 For a complaint about the Staten Island Ferry, see For a complaint about the Staten Island Ferry, see NYT NYT, February 12, 1855.3 The story of the Erie is an oft-told tale. See John Steele Gordon, The story of the Erie is an oft-told tale. See John Steele Gordon, The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, & the Birth of Wall Street The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, & the Birth of Wall Street (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), 94107; Edward Harold Mott, (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), 94107; Edward Harold Mott, Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908); CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908); CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869.4 Mott, 105, 1145; Alfred D. Chandler, Mott, 105, 1145; Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 8194. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 8194.5 NYH NYH, August 30, 31, 1854; NYT NYT, September 5, 1854. On the lack of distinction between a corporation and its members and officers, see Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965.6 RGD, NYC, 341:184; RGD, NYC, 341:184; Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York & Erie Rail Road Co Daniel Drew and Isaac Newton v. New York & Erie Rail Road Co., September 10, 1842, file 1842-#331, Superior Court, NYCC.7 NYH NYH, August 30, 1854.8 NYT NYT, August 30, September 4, 5, October 16, 1854; PS PS, September 7, 1854; RGD, NYC, 340:13; Mott, 115, 125.9 NYT NYT, October 4, 1854; NYH NYH, February 13, 1855.10 John Steele Gordon, John Steele Gordon, A Thread Across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable A Thread Across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable (New York: Walker & Company, 2002), 1827; CV to Cyrus W. Field, [December 2?], 1855, Cyrus W. Field Collection, Morgan Library. (New York: Walker & Company, 2002), 1827; CV to Cyrus W. Field, [December 2?], 1855, Cyrus W. Field Collection, Morgan Library.11 Croffut, 113. Croffut, 113.12 John A. Butler, John A. Butler, Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 2068. On (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 2068. On the Arctic the Arctic sinking, see sinking, see NYT NYT, October 12, 1854, and press coverage in general surrounding this date. The Collins Line was formally called the New York & Liverpool United States Mail Steamship Company.13 NYH NYH, quoted in LT LT, January 1, 1855.14 EP EP, quoted in NYT NYT, February 2, 1855; Croffut, 10910. As noted above, CV estimated his own fortune at $11 million at the beginning of 1853. On wages, see NYT NYT, August 9, 1858.15 NYT NYT, March 9, 1855.16 Mark W. Summers, Mark W. Summers, The Plundering Generation: Corruption and the Crisis of the Union, 18491861 The Plundering Generation: Corruption and the Crisis of the Union, 18491861 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 1046, 262; John G. B. Hutchins, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 1046, 262; John G. B. Hutchins, The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy: 17891914 The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy: 17891914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941), 34858. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941), 34858.17 Summers, 1046, 262; Hutchins, 34858; Butler, 1756; Summers, 1046, 262; Hutchins, 34858; Butler, 1756; Western Journal of Civilization Western Journal of Civilization, September 1852; NYH NYH, February 28, 1855; National Era National Era, March 8, 1855; Benjamin B. French to Henry F. French, September 5, 1852, reel 5, Benjamin B. French Papers, LOC; David Budlong Tyler, Steam Conquers the Atlantic Steam Conquers the Atlantic (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1939), 20910. For a thorough discussion of the Collins Line's steamships, see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1939), 20910. For a thorough discussion of the Collins Line's steamships, see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 14771. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 14771.18 My discussion is informed by John Lauritz Larson's analysis of the early fights over the transcontinental railroad, My discussion is informed by John Lauritz Larson's analysis of the early fights over the transcontinental railroad, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 24355. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 24355.19 Circular Circular, February 8, 1855; SA SA, February 10, 1855.20 For a review of these events, see T. J. Stiles, For a review of these events, see T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 4855; McPherson, 14562. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 4855; McPherson, 14562.21 NYT NYT, February 16, 1855.22 NYT NYT, February 28, 1855; NYTr NYTr, March 9, 1855; Lane, 1446.23 NYTr NYTr, March 3, 1855.24 NYT NYT, March 2, 6, 1855.25 NYTr NYTr, March 8, 1855. Croffut, 108, quotes Wardell as saying, "In dictating a letter to a clerk I never saw his equal."26 David Herbert Donald, David Herbert Donald, Lincoln Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 15461. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 15461.27 NYT NYT, March 9, 1855.28 Circular Circular, April 5, 1855; National Era National Era, April 5, 1855; Butler, 2112. Vanderbilt exchanged another ship, the Granada Granada, for the North Star; North Star; see see NYT NYT, February 7, 1856. On Torrance, see RGD, NYC, 341:167.29 James Maurice to Jefferson Davis, February 7, 1855, James Maurice to General Joseph G. Totten, February 15, 1855, George W. Vanderbilt to Jefferson Davis, February 19, 1855, entry 214, reel 200, U.S. Military Academy Application Papers, Microfilm Publication M688, NA. See also George W. Cullum, James Maurice to Jefferson Davis, February 7, 1855, James Maurice to General Joseph G. Totten, February 15, 1855, George W. Vanderbilt to Jefferson Davis, February 19, 1855, entry 214, reel 200, U.S. Military Academy Application Papers, Microfilm Publication M688, NA. See also George W. Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, NY Biographical Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, NY., vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1891), 7667; George W. Vanderbilt's index number is 1885.30 NYT NYT, March 24, 1855; NYW NYW, December 20, 1877.31 NYH NYH, March 16, 1855; NYT NYT, March 16, 17, 1855.32 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; NYT NYT, April 4, 1855.33 NYT NYT, January 18, May 29, August 7, 1855.34 NYT NYT, November 30, 1852, March 29, April 18, 1854.35 NYH NYH, March 4, 5, June 2, 1855.36 NYH NYH, April 17, 1855.37 LW Dictation. LW Dictation.38 The notion of a highly partisan and politically engaged public has been challenged by Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin, The notion of a highly partisan and politically engaged public has been challenged by Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin, Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), who find that ordinary life was filled with ordinary life, not politics. In particular, they argue that the rise of mass politics alienated the wealthier and better educated voters-that "respectable people" found politics to be a "dirty trade," 845. This corrective is well taken, but clearly politics remained an important part of the culture in which CV was situated. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), who find that ordinary life was filled with ordinary life, not politics. In particular, they argue that the rise of mass politics alienated the wealthier and better educated voters-that "respectable people" found politics to be a "dirty trade," 845. This corrective is well taken, but clearly politics remained an important part of the culture in which CV was situated.39 NYT NYT, April 26, May 1, 1855, February 7, 1856.40 Circular Circular, April 5, 1855; National Era National Era, April 5, 1855; BE BE, April 13, 1855; NYH NYH, May 17, 1855; SA SA, June 23, 1855.41 LT LT, August 1, 1855; SA SA, May 19, 1855.42 Butler, 21520; Butler, 21520; Littell's Living Age Littell's Living Age, May 15, 1858; MM MM, September 1858; Ridgely-Nevitt, 12839, I567, 163.43 NYTr NYTr, September 13, October 15, November 21, 1855; NYT NYT, November 21, 1855; Littell's Living Age Littell's Living Age, December 8, 1855.44 NYH NYH, November 28, 30, 1855.45 JoC JoC, November 22, 1855; NYTr NYTr, November 27, 1855.46 Even the extremely elitist George Templeton Strong deemed Marshall O. Roberts an example of "decent, well-bred men;" Strong, 3:424. Even the extremely elitist George Templeton Strong deemed Marshall O. Roberts an example of "decent, well-bred men;" Strong, 3:424.47 NYTr NYTr, December 17, 24, 1855; NYH NYH, December 24, 1855; NYT NYT, February 7, 1856. Aspinwall apparently had been unhappy with how Pacific Mail had been run in 1855, and wished to make reforms of his own; NYT NYT, July 19, 1855. On November 6, 1855, the Mercantile Agency (which estimated Aspinwall's estate at about $2 million) noted that he was not thought to be actively engaged in business, though he did maintain a large interest in Pacific Mail.48 NYTr NYTr, November 29, 1855; NYT NYT, November 29, 1855; Citizens of Granada, Nicaragua, "Petition to General William Walker to Commute Death Sentence of General Ponciano Corral," November 7, 1855, Papers Concerning the Filibuster War, BL; entry for November 8, 1855, Diary, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC; Manning, 4:487: Burns, 199. Accessory Transit agent Joseph Scott noted that Walker dismissed the Nicaraguans from the service after his victory, SctDP; Burns, 199200. Walker himself admitted Corral's popularity; see William Walker, The War in Nicaragua The War in Nicaragua (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985, orig. pub. 1860), 13440. For a very useful discussion of the historiography of Walker in Nicaragua, see Ralph Lee Woodward Jr., "William Walker and the History of Nicaragua in the Nineteenth Century," (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985, orig. pub. 1860), 13440. For a very useful discussion of the historiography of Walker in Nicaragua, see Ralph Lee Woodward Jr., "William Walker and the History of Nicaragua in the Nineteenth Century," Latin American Research Review Latin American Research Review 15, no. 1 (1980): 23740. Woodward, however, writes in error that the completion of the Panama Railroad made the Nicaragua route uncompetitive. As already shown, it was highly competitive, both in the perceptions of businessmen involved in the California trade and in such objective measurements as speed of passage, economy of operation, and number of passengers. 15, no. 1 (1980): 23740. Woodward, however, writes in error that the completion of the Panama Railroad made the Nicaragua route uncompetitive. As already shown, it was highly competitive, both in the perceptions of businessmen involved in the California trade and in such objective measurements as speed of passage, economy of operation, and number of passengers.49 Robert E. May, Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire: 18541861 The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire: 18541861 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 79; Commodore Hiram Paulding to James C. Dobbin, January 22, 1856, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received from the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA. See also H. W. Brands, (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 79; Commodore Hiram Paulding to James C. Dobbin, January 22, 1856, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received from the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA. See also H. W. Brands, The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 3834. For a full biography of Walker, see Albert Z. Carr, (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 3834. For a full biography of Walker, see Albert Z. Carr, The World and William Walker The World and William Walker (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1963). As May notes, 81n., Carr's book "is sparsely annotated, and much of Carr's psychological interpretation seems intuitive to the extreme." Stephen Dando-Collins's (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1963). As May notes, 81n., Carr's book "is sparsely annotated, and much of Carr's psychological interpretation seems intuitive to the extreme." Stephen Dando-Collins's Tycoon's War: How Cornelius Vanderbilt Invaded a Country to Overthrow America's Most Famous Military Adventurer Tycoon's War: How Cornelius Vanderbilt Invaded a Country to Overthrow America's Most Famous Military Adventurer (New York: Da Capo, 2008) is likewise unreliable, with some fictionalized scenes. (New York: Da Capo, 2008) is likewise unreliable, with some fictionalized scenes.50 Robert E. May, Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny's Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America Manifest Destiny's Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 116; McPherson, 10316; May, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 116; McPherson, 10316; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 7985, 11921; Carr, 111, 36, 56, 634. May argues effectively that, despite enthusiasm for territorial expansion, U.S. presidents did not condone filibustering, and actively opposed it. See, for example, "The Slave Power Conspiracy Revisited: United States Presidents and Filibustering, 18481861," in David W. Blight and Brooks D. Simpson, eds., Union and Emancipation: Essays on Politics and Race in the Civil War Era Union and Emancipation: Essays on Politics and Race in the Civil War Era (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1997), 728. On the broader cultural significance of filibustering, see May's article, "Young American Males and Filibustering in the Age of Manifest Destiny: The United States Army as a Cultural Mirror," (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1997), 728. On the broader cultural significance of filibustering, see May's article, "Young American Males and Filibustering in the Age of Manifest Destiny: The United States Army as a Cultural Mirror," JAH JAH, December 1991, 85786. I am indebted to Professor Lisandro Perez of Florida International University for information on the Cubans of New York and their role in filibustering expeditions. The literature on filibustering is extensive. In addition to May's important books, see, for example, Amy S. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), which depicts filibustering as the result of a crisis of masculinity in America; and William O. Scroggs, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), which depicts filibustering as the result of a crisis of masculinity in America; and William O. Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers: The Story of William Walker and his Associates Filibusters and Financiers: The Story of William Walker and his Associates (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), an account that remains highly influential. Philip S. Foner, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), an account that remains highly influential. Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 121, notes the enthusiasm for seizing Cuba in the business community, led by August Belmont. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 121, notes the enthusiasm for seizing Cuba in the business community, led by August Belmont.51 McPherson, 10316; Manning, 4:2678, 424; Hiram Paulding to My Dear Cal, January 19, 1856, Hiram Paulding Papers, LOC. McPherson, 10316; Manning, 4:2678, 424; Hiram Paulding to My Dear Cal, January 19, 1856, Hiram Paulding Papers, LOC.52 Walker, 27; C. W. Doubleday, Walker, 27; C. W. Doubleday, Reminiscences of the "Filibuster" War in Nicaragua Reminiscences of the "Filibuster" War in Nicaragua (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1886), 164. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1886), 164.53 Walker, 10627; HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13; Burns, 1978; Carr, 136. As will be discussed, newspapers at the time assumed that the ATC deliberately aided Walker; direct evidence, however, shows that Walker coerced the company at every step, starting with the commandeering of Walker, 10627; HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13; Burns, 1978; Carr, 136. As will be discussed, newspapers at the time assumed that the ATC deliberately aided Walker; direct evidence, however, shows that Walker coerced the company at every step, starting with the commandeering of La Virgen La Virgen to capture Granada. See, for example, SctDP. On Walker's early military blundering, see Doubleday, 12030; to capture Granada. See, for example, SctDP. On Walker's early military blundering, see Doubleday, 12030; National Era National Era, August 2, 1855. Walker, 5165, managed to convince himself that he was a genius despite his failures.54 Walker, 14950, quote on 1512. On Walker's reaction to CKG's failure to respond, see Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit. On French, see Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit; Walker, 14950, quote on 1512. On Walker's reaction to CKG's failure to respond, see Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit. On French, see Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit; NYT NYT, December 18, 26, 1855; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 98n. Joseph Scott witnessed Law's sale of rifles to French in New York; SctDP.55 Deposition of Edmund Randolph, Deposition of Alexander P. Crittenden, Mac-Donald Lawsuit; Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit; May, Deposition of Edmund Randolph, Deposition of Alexander P. Crittenden, Mac-Donald Lawsuit; Deposition of Parker H. French, ATC Lawsuit; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 98; May, Manifest Manifest, 121. See also AltaC AltaC, October 21, 1855. Walker, 146, supports the account given here, writing, "Before leaving San Francisco Walker had tried to ascertain the wishes of the Transit Company concerning the introduction of Americans into Nicaragua.... The agent of the company in California stated that his principals had instructed him to have nothing to do with such enterprises as he supposed Walker to contemplate." Commodore Paulding would report that Accessory Transit remained neutral, writing, "The Transit Company acted in good faith pursuing their business with a singleness of purpose.... Their impunity in conducting their business depended upon their acquiescence when there was power to command obedience;" Commodore Hiram Paulding to James C. Dobbin, January 22, 1856, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received by the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA. Note, too, that when one naval officer traveled to Granada in May to consult with the Conservative government about preventing Walker's landing in Nicaragua, Accessory Transit provided him with free passage on a lake steamboat; Commander T. Baily to James C. Dobbin, May 28, 1855, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908: Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 3, entry 603(15), RG 45, NA.56 Soule, 7447; Baughman, 73; David Lavender, Soule, 7447; Baughman, 73; David Lavender, Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C. Ralston and Early San Francisco Nothing Seemed Impossible: William C. Ralston and Early San Francisco (Palo Alto: American West, 1975), 17, 2139; (Palo Alto: American West, 1975), 17, 2139; NYT NYT, October 20, 1851. Every secondary source I have consulted names CM and CKG as coconspirators during the 185354 conflict, even though no primary source evidence supports this conclusion. It appears to be an extrapolation based on their later partnership.57 AltaC AltaC, April 11, 1853; Deposition of Nicholas Laning, ATC Lawsuit; Deposition of Theodore A. Wakeman, Deposition of Benjamin F. Voorhees, MacDonald Lawsuit; Lavender, 5860.58 Dialogue and details of this conversation are taken from the depositions of Edmund Randolph, Alexander P. Crittenden, and John W. Bent, MacDonald Lawsuit. Dialogue and details of this conversation are taken from the depositions of Edmund Randolph, Alexander P. Crittenden, and John W. Bent, MacDonald Lawsuit.59 Depositions of Edmund Randolph, Alexander P. Crittenden, John W. Bent, Benjamin F. Voorhees, and Edward J. C. Kewen, MacDonald Lawsuit; Depositions of Edmund Randolph, Alexander P. Crittenden, John W. Bent, Benjamin F. Voorhees, and Edward J. C. Kewen, MacDonald Lawsuit; NYT NYT, November 21, 1855. Randolph's partner in the transit-flipping scheme was Alexander P. Crittenden, who spoke to CKG about the proposal repeatedly; see William Walker to Alexander P. Crittenden, October 25, 1855, MacDonald Lawsuit.60 Commodore Hiram Paulding, USS Commodore Hiram Paulding, USS Potomac Potomac, Havana, to James C. Dobbin, January 22, 1856, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received by the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA Walker, 150.61 CV to WLM, March 26, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Deposition of Edmund Randolph, San Francisco, January 11, 1859, MacDonald Lawsuit. Contrast my version of CKG's actions with that of Scroggs, CV to WLM, March 26, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Deposition of Edmund Randolph, San Francisco, January 11, 1859, MacDonald Lawsuit. Contrast my version of CKG's actions with that of Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers Filibusters and Financiers, and "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation in Nicaragua," AHR AHR 10, no. 4 (July 1905): 792811. Scroggs crafted the accepted version of these events, arguing that it was CM and CKG's "plan" to convince Walker to annul the charter and give them the rights to carry passengers across Nicaragua. Abundant evidence not consulted by Scroggs, and a closer analysis, points to the version given here. 10, no. 4 (July 1905): 792811. Scroggs crafted the accepted version of these events, arguing that it was CM and CKG's "plan" to convince Walker to annul the charter and give them the rights to carry passengers across Nicaragua. Abundant evidence not consulted by Scroggs, and a closer analysis, points to the version given here.62 John H. Wheeler to WLM, December 15, 1855, Manning, 4:496: John H. Wheeler to WLM, December 15, 1855, Manning, 4:496: NYT NYT, March 15, 1856; Walker, 1468. Historians as well as contemporary reporters have ignored Walker's own declaration that the armed force dispatched by White convinced him to destroy the company. It is, in fact, the most satisfying explanation for his actions. By revoking the corporate charter, he endangered his lifeline to the United States, and made a powerful enemy; but, as an extreme reaction to White's small armed force, it is in keeping with Walker's loathing of treachery and obsession with power. Scroggs mentions the force, but only in the context of the Pierce administration's attitude toward the company; see "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation."63 Deposition of Edmund Randolph, San Francisco, January 11, 1859, Deposition of John W. Bent, New York, July 3, 1858, MacDonald Lawsuit; Walker, 1502. Interestingly, Walker wrote that Alexander Crittenden and Randolph led him to believe that CKG wanted him to cancel the ATC charter, whereas Crittenden, Randolph, and French all testified that CKG resisted this action. The most likely explanation is that Crittenden and Randolph misled Walker to secure his cooperation. Deposition of Edmund Randolph, San Francisco, January 11, 1859, Deposition of John W. Bent, New York, July 3, 1858, MacDonald Lawsuit; Walker, 1502. Interestingly, Walker wrote that Alexander Crittenden and Randolph led him to believe that CKG wanted him to cancel the ATC charter, whereas Crittenden, Randolph, and French all testified that CKG resisted this action. The most likely explanation is that Crittenden and Randolph misled Walker to secure his cooperation.

Eleven Vanderbilt 1 BE BE, December 8, 1855; NYT NYT, December 11, 1855; NYT NYT, December 11, 1855; New York Courier and Enquirer New York Courier and Enquirer, reprinted in the LT LT, December 29, 1855; NYH NYH, January 1, 1856. For a detailed analysis of the Vanderbilt Vanderbilt (and all of CVs other Atlantic steamships) see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, (and all of CVs other Atlantic steamships) see Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 22249. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 22249.2 RGD, NYC, 374:1. CV would later claim that he spent between $800,000 and $900,000 on the RGD, NYC, 374:1. CV would later claim that he spent between $800,000 and $900,000 on the Vanderbilt; Vanderbilt; see HsR 2, part 2A, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. see HsR 2, part 2A, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2.3 NYTr NYTr, December 17, 24, 1855; NYH NYH, December 24, 1855; NYT NYT, February 7, 1856.4 National Era National Era, January 10, 1856.5 On the administration's attitude toward Walker and French, see On the administration's attitude toward Walker and French, see NYT NYT, December 14, 15, 1855; NYH NYH, November 25, 1856; WLM to John H. Wheeler, November 8, 1855, Manning, 4:74. On the Crampton affair, see WLM to J. F. Crampton, August 27, 1855, vol. 80: Private Letterbook, WLMP; NYH NYH, December 25, 1855; NYT NYT, November 17, 1855, May 21, 1856; SEP SEP, May 24, 1856.6 NYH NYH, December 24, 25, 1855, May 9, 1856; NYTr NYTr, December 24, 25, 1855; NYT NYT, December 25, 1855; LT LT, January 8, 1856.7 NYH NYH, December 24, 25, 1855, May 9, 1856; NYTr NYTr, December 24, 25, 1855; NYT NYT, December 25, 1855; LT LT, January 8, 1856. Scott, a careful man, searched the Northern Light Northern Light for arms with McKeon, offering more proof that the company was not secretly supporting Walker, beyond its special emigrant rate. No arms were found on the ship; later it became clear that arms were being shipped down in sailing vessels; for arms with McKeon, offering more proof that the company was not secretly supporting Walker, beyond its special emigrant rate. No arms were found on the ship; later it became clear that arms were being shipped down in sailing vessels; NYTr NYTr, February 7, 1857. Scott also testified that emigrants to California typically went heavily armed, often with revolvers and rifles, and so many weapons were probably carried to Nicaragua by individual filibuster recruits. On the Irish and Five Points, see Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001), 4250, 6780, 11140. (New York: Free Press, 2001), 4250, 6780, 11140.8 NYTr NYTr, January 7, 8, 24, 1856; NYH NYH, January 7, 8, 10, 1856; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.9 NYTr NYTr, January 7, 8, 26, February 9, 1856; NYH NYH, January 8, 10, 25, 1856; entry for January 21, 1856, Senate Journal, 34th Cong., 1st sess.; William Walker, Response to Interrogatories, Charles MacDonald v. CKG and CM Charles MacDonald v. CKG and CM, July 26, 1858, Papers Concerning the Filibuster War, BL; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; CV to WLM, March 17, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11. On CV's hostility toward Walker, see Wheeler's statement in Memorial Presented by David Colden Murray, fold. 1, box 1, CRCC.10 NYTr NYTr, January 7, 8, 26, February 9, 1856; NYH NYH, January 8, 10, 25, 1856; entry for January 21, 1856, Senate Journal, 34th Cong., 1st sess.; William Walker, Response to Interrogatories, Charles MacDonald v. CKG and CM Charles MacDonald v. CKG and CM, July 26, 1858, Papers Concerning the Filibuster War, BL; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; CV to WLM, March 17, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Depositions of O. M. Wozendraft and Edward J. C. Kewen, MacDonald Lawsuit.11 NYTr NYTr, February 14, 19, 23, March 5, 11, 12, 1856; NYT NYT, March 6, 1856.12 NYTr NYTr, March 14, 1856; NYH NYH, March 14, 18, 1856; NYT NYT, March 14, 15, 25, 1856. A dispute erupted on Wall Street over whether CM's short sales were legal, given the revocation of the charter; see entries for March 14, 18, 1856, Minutes of the New York Stock and Exchange Board, vol. 4: 18511858, 247, New York Stock Exchange Archives.13 NYTr NYTr, March 15, 17, 1856; HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; NYH NYH, October 16, 1856; NYT NYT, March 20, 1856; Congressional Globe Congressional Globe, March 17, 1856.14 LT LT, April 8, 1856; NYT NYT, March 18, 24, 26, 1856; NYTr NYTr, March 29, 1856; CT CT, March 28, 1856; HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11. See McPherson, 10316, and Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire: 18541861 The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire: 18541861 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989). (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989).15 NYT NYT, March 17, 1856; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; NYH NYH, March 31, 1856; NYTr NYTr, October 15, 1856. Though the subsidy was usually attributed to Pacific Mail alone, the Independent Independent, February 11, 1858, reported that 75 percent was paid by Pacific Mail and 25 percent by U.S. Mail, a ratio that corresponds to other joint operations. Though the Times Times later would condemn the noncompetition payment, on March 18, 1856, it said in approving tones that it assumed such a "bonus" would be paid. later would condemn the noncompetition payment, on March 18, 1856, it said in approving tones that it assumed such a "bonus" would be paid.16 Memorial of David Colden Murray, CRCC; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, Memorial of David Colden Murray, CRCC; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy: 18151915 Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy: 18151915 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), 2112. Regarding Cross's mission, see a letter from Cross, September 6, 1856, in a newspaper clipping in the Scrapbook, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC. Birdsall was identified as "superintending engineer" in (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), 2112. Regarding Cross's mission, see a letter from Cross, September 6, 1856, in a newspaper clipping in the Scrapbook, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC. Birdsall was identified as "superintending engineer" in NYH NYH, October 16, 1856. On Birdsall's mission, see Manning, 4:556.17 New York Express New York Express, in CT CT, May 12, 1856; Heyl, 6:7980.18 Walker, 1889; May Walker, 1889; May Manifest Destiny's Underworld Manifest Destiny's Underworld, 2015. Both Walker and Edmund Randolph said that they thought steamship service to Nicaragua would continue without interruption, but that Cross's coup disrupted the line on the Pacific for six critical weeks; Deposition of Edmund Randolph, MacDonald Lawsuit.19 Published letter from Cross, September 6, 1856, Scrapbook, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC; Folkman, 789. CKG's contract as agent expired March 31, 1856; Published letter from Cross, September 6, 1856, Scrapbook, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC; Folkman, 789. CKG's contract as agent expired March 31, 1856; ATC v. CKG ATC v. CKG, September 13, 1858, file 1858-#53, Superior Court, NYCC. On the ATC steamships on the Pacific, see NYH NYH, December 1, 1856.20 SctDP; see also CV to WLM, March 17, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11. For more on Scott, see SctDP; see also CV to WLM, March 17, 1856, HED 103, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11. For more on Scott, see NYT NYT, December 27, 1855; entry for November 8, 1855, Diary, John Hill Wheeler Papers, LOC.21 Shortly before the Shortly before the Orizaba Orizaba incident, Captain Tarleton had allowed a sailing ship to unload 160 filibusters, along with rifles, ammunition, and artillery; see Commodore Hiram Paulding to James C. Dobbin, June 16, 1856, with accompanying documents, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received by the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA; Manning, 4:5567; SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13; SctDP; May, incident, Captain Tarleton had allowed a sailing ship to unload 160 filibusters, along with rifles, ammunition, and artillery; see Commodore Hiram Paulding to James C. Dobbin, June 16, 1856, with accompanying documents, roll 96: Home Squadron, June 30, 1855, to December 17, 1856, Letters Received by the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 18411886, Microfilm Publication M89, NA; Manning, 4:5567; SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13; SctDP; May, Manifest Destiny's Underworld Manifest Destiny's Underworld, 245. On the arming of the Costa Ricans by the British, see AltaC AltaC, June 2, 7, 1856; NYT NYT, June 5, 1856. For a description of the rebuilt Greytown, see NYT NYT, March 27, 1857. See also Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston Lord Palmerston (London: Constable, 1970), 457, on British reluctance to take direct action against Walker. (London: Constable, 1970), 457, on British reluctance to take direct action against Walker.22 NYT NYT, May 19, 20, 21, 1856; SEP SEP, May 24, 1856; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 89.23 Burns, 70, 201; Burns, 70, 201; NYT NYT, May 15, 16, 1856; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 1013. Williams, Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 2112, argues that intelligence of British shipments of arms to Costa Rica led to the recognition. Though this is an overstatement, the discovery certainly gave added urgency to the decision.24 Even Scroggs, who argued that the ATC supported the filibusters, wrote in "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation" that "the government officers had no means of distinguishing the filibuster from the passenger. Moreover it seems that the recruits were never organized on a military basis until they were beyond the jurisdiction of the United States." Yet Scroggs expected the company to know the difference between emigrant and filibuster! Even Scroggs, who argued that the ATC supported the filibusters, wrote in "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation" that "the government officers had no means of distinguishing the filibuster from the passenger. Moreover it seems that the recruits were never organized on a military basis until they were beyond the jurisdiction of the United States." Yet Scroggs expected the company to know the difference between emigrant and filibuster!25 Thomas W. Ward to WLM, April 18, 1856, SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13. Thomas W. Ward to WLM, April 18, 1856, SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13.26 Manning, 4:53641. Walker's version appears 21428, 231; Burns, 203. Manning, 4:53641. Walker's version appears 21428, 231; Burns, 203.27 T. J. Stiles, T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 4655; McPherson, 14561. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 4655; McPherson, 14561.28 MM MM, December 1854; NYT NYT, July 3, 1860; Memoirs of William T. Sherman 1860; Memoirs of William T. Sherman (New York: Da Capo, 1984, orig. pub. 1875), 95105, 11824; Kemble, 71, 1523, 206; Richard Maxwell Brown, (New York: Da Capo, 1984, orig. pub. 1875), 95105, 11824; Kemble, 71, 1523, 206; Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 12340. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 12340.29 Sherman, 95105, 11824; Brown, 12340; Sherman, 95105, 11824; Brown, 12340; NYT NYT, March 27, June 27, 1857; National Era National Era, July 3, 1856; Deposition of Benjamin F. Voorhees, MacDonald Lawsuit. See also Leonard L. Richards, The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 56, 2633, 1846. The Pierce administration expressed "alarm" but also a need for "extraordinary circumspection" with regard to the vigilance committee, and declined to intervene; see James C. Dobbin to Commodore William Mervine, August 2, 1856, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908: Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, entry 603(15), RG 45, NA. For commentary on gang violence in contemporary New York elections, see (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 56, 2633, 1846. The Pierce administration expressed "alarm" but also a need for "extraordinary circumspection" with regard to the vigilance committee, and declined to intervene; see James C. Dobbin to Commodore William Mervine, August 2, 1856, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908: Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, entry 603(15), RG 45, NA. For commentary on gang violence in contemporary New York elections, see NYTr NYTr, June 7, 1852.30 Deposition of Edmund Randolph, Deposition of Alexander P. Crittenden, MacDonald Lawsuit; Deposition of Edmund Randolph, Deposition of Alexander P. Crittenden, MacDonald Lawsuit; NYT NYT, July 15, 16, 28, 1856, March 20, 1857; NYH NYH, November 21, 1856; Baughman, 81. Walker officially transferred the transit rights and property to CM and CKG in a decree signed August 26, 1856; SEP SEP, October 4, 1856.31 HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; HsR 2, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1; NYT NYT, March 6, 1852, April 23, 25, 1886; LW Dictation.32 Medbery 3123; entry for March 24, 1856, Minutes of the New York Stock and Exchange Board, vol. 4: 18511858, New York Stock Exchange Archives; RGD, NYC, 366:251. Medbery 3123; entry for March 24, 1856, Minutes of the New York Stock and Exchange Board, vol. 4: 18511858, New York Stock Exchange Archives; RGD, NYC, 366:251.33 Strong, 2:282; Strong, 2:282; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; CV to John Hawes, August 4, 1856, fold. 12, box 1, Ms 8201, Panama Collection, Department of Special Collections, University Libraries, Wichita State University; NYH NYH, July 16, September 15, October 16, December 1, 1856; NYT NYT, June 3, 6, 12, August 22, 1856; NYTr NYTr, October 16, November 4, 1856.34 NYT NYT, May 6, June 3, 6, 1856; NYH NYH, July 16, 1856; NYTr NYTr, October 15, 1856; David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.35 NYT NYT, November 21, 1857; Ridgely-Nevitt, 1639.36 NYT NYT, April 16, July 21, 24, 30, 1856; January 21, July 23, 1856, Senate Journal, 34th Cong., 1st sess.; Benjamin B. French to Henry F. French, September 5, 1856, reel 7, Benjamin B. French Papers, LOC; David Budlong Tyler, Steam Conquers the Atlantic Steam Conquers the Atlantic (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1939), 2368. (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1939), 2368.37 Burns, 198, 202; Burns, 198, 202; NYT NYT, March 17, April 17, May 30, 1856; Walker, 190, 197210; SED 68, 34th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 13.38 CT CT, September 6, 1856; NYH NYH, September 6, 7, 1856. As discussed previously, social concerns over the difficulties of assessing character had grown up in the collapse of the culture of deference, and the rise of an individualistic, commercial society; see in particular Confidence Men Confidence Men. Amy S. Greenberg, in "A Gray-Eyed Man: Character, Appearance, and Filibustering," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 20, no. 4 (winter 2000): 67399, and 20, no. 4 (winter 2000): 67399, and Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), goes so far as to argue that "the American reception of William Walker's Nicaragua adventures was shaped by a national conflict over the relationship between character and appearance." I would argue that this "conflict" may have led Walker's supporters to cast about for a way to put his unimpressive appearance in a positive light, but it in no way determined the public's response to him. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), goes so far as to argue that "the American reception of William Walker's Nicaragua adventures was shaped by a national conflict over the relationship between character and appearance." I would argue that this "conflict" may have led Walker's supporters to cast about for a way to put his unimpressive appearance in a positive light, but it in no way determined the public's response to him.39 RGD, NYC, 374:1. RGD, NYC, 374:1.40 NYT NYT, November 22, 1856; NYH NYH, November 21, 25, 1856; SctDP; Francisco Calcagno, Diccionario Biografico Cubano Diccionario Biografico Cubano (New York: Ponce de Leon, 1878), 302; William O. Scroggs, "William Walker's Designs on Cuba," (New York: Ponce de Leon, 1878), 302; William O. Scroggs, "William Walker's Designs on Cuba," Mississippi Valley Historical Review Mississippi Valley Historical Review 1, no. 2 (September 1914): 198211; Scroggs, 1, no. 2 (September 1914): 198211; Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters, 2178; May Southern Dream Southern Dream, 106. One of Goicouria's letters stated, in the passive voice, that someone had offered him $250,000 for the transit rights. The press assumed that this offer came from CV (NYT (NYT, November 24, 1856), and historians have followed suit (see, for example, Baughman, 82). This is possible (perhaps simply as a feint), but I doubt it. For one thing, Goicouria mentioned CV by name elsewhere in the same letter; why leave out his name with regard to the offer? And such an offer would have been out of keeping with CV's consistent course, to oppose Walker and restore the original company to possession. Further, there is every indication that he believed Walker would soon be driven from power. Finally, CV explicitly denied that Goicouria was his "agent" (NYH (NYH, November 25, 1856), or that he had ever supported Walker, a statement supported by Goicouria himself (NYT (NYT, March 24, 1857) and the pro-filibuster U.S. minister to Nicaragua, John N. Wheeler (see his sworn deposition in CRCC).41 NYT NYT, November 22, 1856; NYH NYH, November 21, 25, 1856; SctDP; Calcagno, 302; Scroggs, "William Walker's Designs on Cuba," 198211; Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters, 2178; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 106. Walker, 25666, offers a lengthy defense of his reestablishment of slavery.42 NYH NYH, November 25, 1856; HW HW, May 23, 1857; NYTr NYTr, February 7, 1857.43 NYH NYH, October 15, 1856.44 Burns, 2035, 2135. Michel Gobat emphasizes, in Burns, 2035, 2135. Michel Gobat emphasizes, in Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua Under U.S. Imperial Rule Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua Under U.S. Imperial Rule (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 2141, Walker's revolutionary role in displacing old power structures and remaking Nicaraguan society, and his support from both local elites as well as peasants and Indians. He did not, for example, press Nicaraguans into armed service, as had traditionally been done. However, such incidents as the hanging of Byron Cole and the slaughter of Walker's wounded on Ometepe demonstrate widespread, violent discontent with filibuster rule. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 2141, Walker's revolutionary role in displacing old power structures and remaking Nicaraguan society, and his support from both local elites as well as peasants and Indians. He did not, for example, press Nicaraguans into armed service, as had traditionally been done. However, such incidents as the hanging of Byron Cole and the slaughter of Walker's wounded on Ometepe demonstrate widespread, violent discontent with filibuster rule.45 HW HW, January 31, 1857; May, Manifest Destiny's Underworld Manifest Destiny's Underworld, 2003. Walker, 301, wrote that not until Charles Henningsen arrived in October 1856 did he have an officer qualified to train the men in the use of the Minie rifle or artillery.46 Walker, 28794, 30112; Manning, 4:576; Scroggs, Walker, 28794, 30112; Manning, 4:576; Scroggs, Filibusters Filibusters, 255.47 HW HW, May 23, 1857; NYTr NYTr, January 14, 1857; NYH NYH, January 25, 1857.48 Walker, 36771; Charles Henry Davis to Commodore William Mervine, March 4, 1857, Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908, entry 603 (15), RG 45, NA. Walker, 36771; Charles Henry Davis to Commodore William Mervine, March 4, 1857, Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908, entry 603 (15), RG 45, NA.49 NYT NYT, January 28, 1857; H W H W, January 31, 1857; NYTr NYTr, December 20, 21, 22, 1855.50 SctDP. SctDP.51 Scroggs, "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation," makes precisely this point about Vanderbilt's strategy. Scroggs, "William Walker and the Steamship Corporation," makes precisely this point about Vanderbilt's strategy.52 Statement of U.S. Commissioner B. F. Rexford, In the Matter of David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, CRCC; Statement of U.S. Commissioner B. F. Rexford, In the Matter of David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, CRCC; NYH NYH, January 26, 1857.53 NYT NYT, January 29, June 11, July 4, 1857; Juan R. Mora to Sylvanus M. Spencer, December 3, 1856, Memorial of David Colden Murray, CRCC. Historians have consistently reported that an Englishman, W. R. C. Webster, commanded Spencer's expedition as CV's chief agent; see, for example, Lane, 129, and Folkman, 88. In fact, Webster appears to have been a confidence man who promoted this idea (see, for example, NYT NYT and and NYH NYH, January 29, 1857). CV refused to pay drafts that Webster issued; and Webster appears nowhere in the extensive investigations of the CRCC. I therefore conclude that, as per the NYT NYT reporting cited, Webster was a fraud. reporting cited, Webster was a fraud.54 NYH NYH, January 29, 1857; NYT NYT, January 29, March 27, 1857; Affidavit of Sylvanus M. Spencer, July 25, 1860, Affidavit of George F. Cauty, August 9, 1858, Statement of B. Squire Cottrel, January 26, 1858, CRCC; Walker, 3423.55 Marriage Certificate, November 26, 1856, WFP; Marriage Certificate, November 26, 1856, WFP; HC HC, November 28, 1856; NYS NYS, December 19, 1877. On Vanderbilt's feelings toward the Williams family see CV to Ezekiel Williams Jr., February 12, 1857, and CV to Oliver Williams, May 5, 1860, WFP.56 Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette, November 29, December 6, 1856; NYT NYT, December 11, 16, 1856, January 16, 1857.57 NYH NYH, January 16, 1857.58 Statement of B. Squire Cottrel, January 26, 1858, CRCC; SctDP. Cottrel places these events one day earlier; I am following Scott, whose account agrees with contemporary newspaper reports. Statement of B. Squire Cottrel, January 26, 1858, CRCC; SctDP. Cottrel places these events one day earlier; I am following Scott, whose account agrees with contemporary newspaper reports.59 SctDP. SctDP.60 SctDP; Deposition of William W. Wise, CRCC; SctDP; Deposition of William W. Wise, CRCC; NYT NYT, March 5, 1857.61 NYH NYH, January 26, 1857; NYTr NYTr, January 26, 1857; NYT NYT, March 5, 1857; Deposition of William W. Wise, CRCC.62 NYTr NYTr, January 26, 1857; NYH NYH, January 25, 1857; Deposition of William W. Wise, CRCC.

Twelve Champion 1 NYTr NYTr, January 27, 1857.2 "The Experience of Samuel Absalom, Filibuster," "The Experience of Samuel Absalom, Filibuster," Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, December 1859; HED 24, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 7; Walker, 37184. Walker admitted to the demoralization of his men. A filibuster force landed at Greytown and tried to fight its way through, but a Costa Rican ruse held them off at Castillo Viejo until Mora could send reinforcements; then Goicouria arranged for a steamship to pick up the retreating filibusters at Greytown; NYH NYH, April 30, 1857; Manning, 7:7034. NYT NYT, December 24, 1856, and NYTr NYTr, June 1, 1857. Goicouria was now on the ATC payroll, taking a total of $15,000 from it; see David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. Note also that Charles J. MacDonald asked the U.S. Navy to intervene to recover the steamboats for CKG and CM; C. J. Macdonald to Captain Charles Henry Davis, U.S. Sloop of War St. Mary's St. Mary's, February 23, 1857, Affidavit of C. J. Macdonald, February 23, 1857, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908: Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, entry 603(15), RG 45, NA.3 NYH NYH, May 29, 1857; Charles Henry Davis to Commodore William Mervine, March 4, 19, 1857, Letter Books of U.S. Naval Officers, March 1778 to July 1908: Correspondence of Rear Admiral William Mervine, July 1836 to August 1868, vol. 4, entry 603(15), RG 45, NA; Walker, 41928; Burns, 206; William O. Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers: The Story of William Walker and his Associates Filibusters and Financiers: The Story of William Walker and his Associates (New York: Macmillan, 1916), 286301. (New York: Macmillan, 1916), 286301.4 NYH NYH, May 29, 1857; Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, December 1859. For newspaper coverage of Spencer's raid, see any New York newspaper starting January 16, 1857, especially NYT NYT, January 28, 1857. For examples of the "war of the commodores" reporting, see NYH NYH, November 29, 1856, January 27, 1857; NYT NYT, March 17, 1857.5 Manning, 4:719, 768; Manning, 4:719, 768; NYH NYH, January 28, 1858.6 LT LT, February 23, 1857.7 CM's letter quoted in Baughman, 83; RGD, NYC, 316:83, 1G; Deposition of Benjamin F. Voorhees, MacDonald Lawsuit; CM's letter quoted in Baughman, 83; RGD, NYC, 316:83, 1G; Deposition of Benjamin F. Voorhees, MacDonald Lawsuit; Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette, March 7, 1857; NYTr NYTr, March 9, 1857.8 HW HW, April 4, 1857.9 HW HW, March 5, 1859.10 Francis Gerry Fairfield, Francis Gerry Fairfield, The Clubs of New York The Clubs of New York (New York: Henry L. Hinton, 1873), 151. (New York: Henry L. Hinton, 1873), 151.11 NYH NYH, April 9, 1857; CV to Ezekiel Williams Jr., February 12, 1857, WFP. Letters in Vanderbilt's own hand are rare after 1837, when first Daniel Allen and then Lambert Wardell assumed the physical chore of putting pen to paper.12 HC HC, March 11, 1857; NYW NYW, December 20, 1877.13 NYTr NYTr, March 9, 1857; McPherson, 1748.14 Sean Wilentz, Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 699702; McPherson, 156, 1613; Kenneth M. Stampp, (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 699702; McPherson, 156, 1613; Kenneth M. Stampp, America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 479. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 479.15 NYH NYH, February 14, 1858; NYT NYT, September 8, 1857, July 2, 1858; USMDR USMDR, December 1857; Stampp, 72, 76; Jerome Mushkat, Tammany: The Evolution of a Political Machine, 17891865 Tammany: The Evolution of a Political Machine, 17891865 (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 264, 2679, 300, 303, 315; Francis Schell, (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 264, 2679, 300, 303, 315; Francis Schell, Memoir of the Hon. Augustus Schell Memoir of the Hon. Augustus Schell (New York: privately printed, 1885). For more on Wood, see Burrows & Wallace, 83141. For a story showing Clark and Schell practicing law together, see (New York: privately printed, 1885). For more on Wood, see Burrows & Wallace, 83141. For a story showing Clark and Schell practicing law together, see NYT NYT, March 21, 1854. As political allies, see NYT NYT, October 5, 1854, June 23, 1857, April 6, 1858. For more commentary on violence in New York elections, see NYTr NYTr, June 7, 1852. For insight into the many ways the collector of the port could profit from his position, see SR 227, part 1, 42nd Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 4.16 Washington Evening Star Washington Evening Star, December 6, 1858; JB to Alexander Dimitry November 1, 1859, reel 50, JBP.17 David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; NYT NYT, May 5, 1857; NYH NYH, May 6, 21, 1857.18 SctDP; Sylvanus M. Spencer Deposition, David Colden Murray Memorial, fold. 1, box 1, CRCC. On Webster, see SctDP; Sylvanus M. Spencer Deposition, David Colden Murray Memorial, fold. 1, box 1, CRCC. On Webster, see NYT NYT, January 29, June 3, 11, July 4, 1857. Not only did CV repudiate Webster, but Webster's name appears nowhere in the extensive investigations of the CRCC.19 NYT NYT, August 30, 1855.20 Burns, 4, 42, 221; Burns, 4, 42, 221; NYT NYT, August 26, 1857, April 24, July 1, 1858; NYH NYH, March 1, 1858.21 CT CT, December 11, 1857, February 28, 1859; HED 47, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 9; John A. Butler, Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam Atlantic Kingdom: America's Contest with Cunard in the Age of Sail and Steam (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 220; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2001), 220; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 1378. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 1378.22 National Era National Era, April 23, 1857; CT CT, April 24, 1857; NYT NYT, April 28, May 6, 1857; HC HC, May 14, 1857; SA SA, June 6, 1857; Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal, quoted in NYT NYT, June 11, 1857. NYT NYT, June 15, 1857, lists Mrs. C. Vanderbilt as one of the Americans registered with a bank in Paris.23 HC HC, May 14, 1857; LT LT, June 4, 1857.24 On the speed of crossing, see On the speed of crossing, see Liberator Liberator, July 17, 1857; NYT NYT, July 15, 21, August 3, 25, 1857. For the bankruptcy of the Bremen line, see National Era National Era, July 2, 1857; CT CT, December 11, 1857; HED 47, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 9; Ridgely-Nevitt, 1379. For an astute analysis of CVs method, see NYT NYT, October 26, 1857.25 Thomas C. Cochran, Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 223. (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 223.26 NYT NYT, January 21, 1857; CV v. HRR CV v. HRR, July 16, 1858, file LJ-1858-N-41, Supreme Court Judgments, NYCC.27 Directors' Minutes, June 15, 24, 1857, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR (cited hereafter as HRR Minutes). I do not mean to say that CVs only contact with the HRR was through the Schuyler fraud; the same source shows, in the list of voters at the annual stockholders' meeting, April 22, 1853, that CV owned 1,500 shares of stock, out of 50,897 total, at a time when Robert Schuyler was president. For details of the dispute, and the HRR's refusal to accept CVs terms, see the HRR Minutes, July 18, 19, 20, 1854. There is a fine summary of these events in a Directors' Minutes, June 15, 24, 1857, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR (cited hereafter as HRR Minutes). I do not mean to say that CVs only contact with the HRR was through the Schuyler fraud; the same source shows, in the list of voters at the annual stockholders' meeting, April 22, 1853, that CV owned 1,500 shares of stock, out of 50,897 total, at a time when Robert Schuyler was president. For details of the dispute, and the HRR's refusal to accept CVs terms, see the HRR Minutes, July 18, 19, 20, 1854. There is a fine summary of these events in a NYTr NYTr report quoted in report quoted in HC HC, August 15, 1876.28 NYT NYT, May 20, 1857; NYH NYH, May 20, 1857; According to the HRR Minutes, CV owned 1,001 shares (alongside Clark's three hundred), yet he won 79,124 votes, the most of any candidate; Report of the Inspectors of Election, May 19, 1957, see entry for May 18, 1858, HRR Minutes. See also Hudson C. Tanner, "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 226. Tanner claimed to be quoting unpublished minutes of CVs testimony before a committee of New York's legislature that he took as official stenographer, material that was suppressed in official publications. Given the close correlation between Tanner's account and the minutes of the HRR, I believe he wrote truthfully. Tanner later swore before Congress that the suppressed testimony was given on March 3, 1869, to a committee of the New York State Assembly, reported in NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; see (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 226. Tanner claimed to be quoting unpublished minutes of CVs testimony before a committee of New York's legislature that he took as official stenographer, material that was suppressed in official publications. Given the close correlation between Tanner's account and the minutes of the HRR, I believe he wrote truthfully. Tanner later swore before Congress that the suppressed testimony was given on March 3, 1869, to a committee of the New York State Assembly, reported in NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; see NYTr NYTr, March 6, 1871. I accept Tanner's account in "The Lobby" "The Lobby" as accurate. as accurate.29 Entries for June 15, 24, 1857, HRR Minutes. I am extrapolating a figure of $6.5 million, based on the commissions reported in the minutes and CVs comment in Tanner, 226, that he and Drew took a commission of one-half of 1 percent on their endorsements. Entries for June 15, 24, 1857, HRR Minutes. I am extrapolating a figure of $6.5 million, based on the commissions reported in the minutes and CVs comment in Tanner, 226, that he and Drew took a commission of one-half of 1 percent on their endorsements.30 Entries for June 24, 25, 1857, HRR Minutes; Tanner, 224. Entries for June 24, 25, 1857, HRR Minutes; Tanner, 224.31 Tanner, 2256. Tanner, 2256.32 September 9, 1857, HRR Minutes. September 9, 1857, HRR Minutes.33 NYH NYH, June 17, 1857; Farmer's Cabinet Farmer's Cabinet, June 25, 1857.34 BE BE, June 22, 1857; NYH, quoted in National Era in National Era, July 23, 1857; JB to Isaiah Rynders, September 14, 1859, reel 50, JBP. The BE BE and the and the NYH NYH said that JB told CV nothing; the latter part of the said that JB told CV nothing; the latter part of the NYH NYH report suggests that he did, as does a letter from CV to General Jose Maria Canas, August 5, 1857, in Manning, 4:638. Robert E. May observes that historians have "unfairly stigmatized" Buchanan as a supporter of filibustering; "The Slave Power Conspiracy Revisited: United States Presidents and Filibustering, 18481861," in David W. Blight and Brooks D. Simpson, eds., report suggests that he did, as does a letter from CV to General Jose Maria Canas, August 5, 1857, in Manning, 4:638. Robert E. May observes that historians have "unfairly stigmatized" Buchanan as a supporter of filibustering; "The Slave Power Conspiracy Revisited: United States Presidents and Filibustering, 18481861," in David W. Blight and Brooks D. Simpson, eds., Union and Emancipation: Essays on Politics and Race in the Civil War Era Union and Emancipation: Essays on Politics and Race in the Civil War Era (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1997), 728. It was thought that CM and CKG were helping Walker; in fact, they purchased a transit contract from Webster that led nowhere; (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1997), 728. It was thought that CM and CKG were helping Walker; in fact, they purchased a transit contract from Webster that led nowhere; NYT NYT, July 31, 1857; AltaC, September 16, 1857; Kemble, 77.35 NYT NYT, August 26, December 19, 1857, April 24, July 1, 1858; NYH NYH, March 1, 1858, May 2, 1859; Manning, 4:5945, 623n, 6256, 6378; H W H W, November 21, 1857; CV to JB, October 20, 1857, roll 33, JBP; Folkman, 948; Burns, 4, 42, 221. A distinctly irritated secretary of state wrote that CV was "deserving of censure" for his attempts to prevent the recognition of Yrisarri; Lewis Cass to Mirabeau B. Lamar, January 2, 1858, Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State, 18011906: Central American States, vol. 15, May 29, 1833, to July 25, 1858, roll 27, Microfilm Publication M77, NA-CP.36 SED 13, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 1; Robert E. May, SED 13, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 1; Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire: 18541861 The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire: 18541861 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 113. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 113.37 Strong, 2:211; Burrows & Wallace, Strong, 2:211; Burrows & Wallace, 66670 66670.38 NYH NYH, June 17, 1857, Liberator Liberator, July 17, 1857; Burrows & Wallace, 83641.39 Stampp, 2147, 221; Burrows & Wallace, 8467; McPherson, 18891; Tanner, 226. Stampp, 2147, 221; Burrows & Wallace, 8467; McPherson, 18891; Tanner, 226.40 NYH NYH, January 1, 1858; Strong, 2:351.41 NYT NYT, September 3, 19, 1857; RGD, NYC, 342:290.42 Strong, 2:3556; Strong, 2:3556; NYT NYT, October 6, 1857.43 RGD, NYC, 316:81. RGD, NYC, 316:81.44 This dialogue is taken from Tanner, 22530. This dialogue is taken from Tanner, 22530.45 Tanner, 22530; October 21, 1857, HRR Minutes; Tanner, 22530; October 21, 1857, HRR Minutes; NYTr NYTr in in HC HC, August 15, 1876. The crisis largely involved the coupons of the first-mortgage bonds, which the company lacked the funds to pay.46 Tanner, 22530; RGD, NYC, 340:47. As mentioned earlier, Tanner's quotation strikes me as accurate. It closely fits the HRR Minutes and RGD, which records a mortgage to Drew issued on September 30, 1857. I believe this unpublished testimony was given on March 3, 1869, to a committee of the New York State Assembly; see NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869, in which CV and Horace Clark testified that CV took the bonds at a 50 percent discount. Tanner, 22530; RGD, NYC, 340:47. As mentioned earlier, Tanner's quotation strikes me as accurate. It closely fits the HRR Minutes and RGD, which records a mortgage to Drew issued on September 30, 1857. I believe this unpublished testimony was given on March 3, 1869, to a committee of the New York State Assembly; see NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869, in which CV and Horace Clark testified that CV took the bonds at a 50 percent discount.47 November 11, 20, 28, 1857, January 30, February 10, 1858, HRR Minutes. On the HRR's improved condition in 1858, see November 11, 20, 28, 1857, January 30, February 10, 1858, HRR Minutes. On the HRR's improved condition in 1858, see NYH NYH, May 19, 1858; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869.48 HW HW, November 21, 1857. For a discussion of Thanksgiving's spread, see JoC JoC, November 30, 1837.49 NYH NYH, February 23, 1868; CT CT, January 13, 1867, February 11, 1868.50 H W H W, November 28, 1857. For more information about CV's racing and the carriages of the wealthy, see NYH NYH, June 18, December 5, 1859; Melvin L. Adelman, "The First Modern Sport in America: Harness Racing in New York City, 18251870," Journal of Sport History Journal of Sport History 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532. Adelman notes that Thoroughbred racing was considered a sport of the older, aristocratic elite, and that harness racing-both formal and informal-was championed by a rising wealthy class that lacked social pedigree. On Frank Work's role as CVs broker, see 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532. Adelman notes that Thoroughbred racing was considered a sport of the older, aristocratic elite, and that harness racing-both formal and informal-was championed by a rising wealthy class that lacked social pedigree. On Frank Work's role as CVs broker, see NYS NYS, March 7, 1878.51 SED 13, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 1; SED 13, 35th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 1; NYT NYT, December 28, 1857; Strong, 2:3789; May, Southern Dream Southern Dream, 11325; Folkman, 956.52 NYH NYH, January 28, March 1, 1858; Manning, 4:6601; Burns, 2214. Webster tagged along with Allen, to his apparent annoyance. On the attitude of the Nicaraguans toward the White contract, see NYH NYH, April 28, 1858.53 Pacific Mail had stopped its subsidy during the operation of CKG and CM's Nicaragua line, but resumed when they suspended operations. Pacific Mail had stopped its subsidy during the operation of CKG and CM's Nicaragua line, but resumed when they suspended operations. NYH NYH, February 4, 5, 1858; NYT NYT, February 6, March 27, April 21, 1858; Independent Independent, February 11, 1858; Kemble, 78, 92.54 NYT NYT, April 10, 1858; National Era National Era, April 15, 1858; SctDP; ATC v. CKG ATC v. CKG, September 13, 1858, file 185853, Superior Court, NYCC A year later, the receiver for Accessory Transit asked for the decision to be set aside "on the ground of collusion between Vanderbilt and Garrison;" NYT NYT, September 26, 1859.55 RGD, NYC, 374:97; RGD, NYC, 374:97; NYT NYT, March 14, 18, 1854, April 28, 1858; CV v. JLW CV v. JLW, November 7, 1860, file 1860-#985, Superior Court, NYCC. On White's private opera box, see NYH NYH, December 25, 1855.56 HW HW, March 8, 27, 1858; NYH NYH, April 2, 1858; NYT NYT, May 26, 27, 1858; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 16970. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 16970.57 David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV David Colden Murray, Receiver of the ATC, v. CV, November 3, 1859, file PL 1859-M V74, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.58 NYT NYT, March 27, July 1, 5, 1858.59 NYH NYH, May 30, 1858; NYT NYT, June 28, July 15, 16, 31, 1858; SctDP; Manning, 4:686; Burns, 231. See also Cyril Allen, "Felix Belly: Nicaraguan Canal Promoter," HAHR HAHR 37, no. 1 (February 1957): 4659, to understand the role of Felix Belly, a French canal promoter who intrigued against CV. 37, no. 1 (February 1957): 4659, to understand the role of Felix Belly, a French canal promoter who intrigued against CV.60 McPherson, 1637. McPherson, 1637.61 NYT NYT, July 2, 1858. See also CT CT, March 22, 1858; NYT NYT, February 9, 1858.62 Daniel E. Sickles to JB, September 29, 1857, roll 33, JBP For more on JB's coldness toward CV because of his hostility to Clark, see Daniel E. Sickles to JB, September 29, 1857, roll 33, JBP For more on JB's coldness toward CV because of his hostility to Clark, see NYT NYT, September 2, 1858.63 BE BE, August 18, 1858; NYT NYT, April 6, July 2, September 2, 1858.64 Burrows & Wallace, 84751; Burrows & Wallace, 84751; NYT NYT, August 9, 13, 1858.65 Strong, 2:4113; Strong, 2:4113; NYT NYT, January 28, September 6, 7, 27, October 7, 1858.66 NYT NYT, October 15, 29, 30, 1858; National Era National Era, November 4, 1858; Strong, 2:419.67 NYH NYH, September 5, October 5, 1859; Washington Evening Star Washington Evening Star, December 6, 1858; NYH NYH, September 5, 1859; NYTr NYTr, September 8, 1859; SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Kemble, 83.68 NYT NYT, June 11, December 13, 1858; Washington Evening Star Washington Evening Star, December 13, 1858; Manning, 4:862.69 NYT NYT, June 2, 1860; HW HW, February 12, 19, March 5, 1859; NYH NYH, April 29, 1859; LT LT, March 2, 1859; PS PS, July 28, 1859. There are signs of an early start to negotiations with Samuel L. M. Barlow, a prominent figure in Pacific Mail; see CV to Samuel L. M. Barlow, May 7, 1859, BW box 30 (47), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL; CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS.70 New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, April 7, 1859; NYT NYT, November 28, 1859; NYH NYH, September 10, October 3, 1859, January 1, 1860; NYTr NYTr, September 7, 1859; Pacific Mail Steamship Co., Proceedings in Connection with Negotiations with C Vanderbilt, November 30th, 1859 Proceedings in Connection with Negotiations with C Vanderbilt, November 30th, 1859 (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1859), copy in BL; Kemble, 835. Though incorporated in April, the Atlantic & Pacific Steamship Company advertised for stock subscriptions in (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1859), copy in BL; Kemble, 835. Though incorporated in April, the Atlantic & Pacific Steamship Company advertised for stock subscriptions in NYT NYT, September 23, 1859, and was mistakenly derided as simply an attempt to drive down the Pacific Mail share price.71 Washington Evening Star Washington Evening Star, December 6, 1858; NYH NYH, September 5, 1859; NYTr NYTr, September 8, 1859; SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Kemble, 83. CV's correspondence with Holt appears in SED 45.72 CV to Pliny Miles, June 8, 1859, NYSL. CV to Pliny Miles, June 8, 1859, NYSL.73 CV to JB, August 30, 31, November 1, 1859, reel 38, JB to Alexander Dimitry November 1, 1859, reel 50, JBP. CV to JB, August 30, 31, November 1, 1859, reel 38, JB to Alexander Dimitry November 1, 1859, reel 50, JBP.74 SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess.; SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess.; NYT NYT, September 27, October 13, 1859; NYH NYH, October 3, 1859; HW HW, September 24, 1859; October 1, 1859. On CVs purchase of CKG's stake, see NYT NYT, October 10, 1859; NYH NYH, October 10, 1859; CT CT, October 14, 1859; NYTr NYTr, March 2, 1860. CKG continued to serve as agent until Vanderbilt's new agents arrived from New York; CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS. Kemble, 93, reported that an examination of Pacific Mail's books showed that it lost money.75 NYH NYH, October 5, 6, 7, 1859; CT CT, October 8, 1859; NYT NYT, October 25, 1859; SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; SED 44, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1.76 HW HW, December 18, 1858.77 NYH NYH, October 17, 1859.78 NYH NYH, July 10, 1859; HW HW, October 1, 1859; Strong, 2:454.79 NYH NYH, December 5, 1859. On the symbolic nature of the CV-Bonner rivalry, and the social implications of the rise of trotting, see Adelman, "The First Modern Sport."80 HW HW, February 26, 1859.81 Burrows & Wallace, 697705, 8456, 84951 Burrows & Wallace, 697705, 8456, 84951 (Harper's (Harper's quoted on 697). quoted on 697).82 Burrows & Wallace, 84751; Burrows & Wallace, 84751; NYT NYT, August 9, 13, 1858.83 NYH NYH, March 5, 1879; NYTr NYTr, March 18, 1878; NYW NYW, November 14, 1877. William's love of driving fast horses would later be well publicized; see, for example, NYS NYS, January 26, 1878.84 NYH NYH, March 5, 1879; NYT NYT, April 6, 1857, August 20, 1860; NYSAD 75, February 15, 1861.85 HW HW, September 3, 1859; SED 2, part 2, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2.86 CV to Oliver Williams, May 5, 1860, WFP. CV to Oliver Williams, May 5, 1860, WFP.87 McPherson, 206; Strong, 2:4734. McPherson, 206; Strong, 2:4734.88 McPherson, 2001; McPherson, 2001; CT CT, December 19, 1859.89 Letters and excerpts from minutes reprinted in Pacific Mail Steamship Co., Letters and excerpts from minutes reprinted in Pacific Mail Steamship Co., Proceedings Proceedings.90 NYH NYH, December 1, 1859. For discussions of these negotiations in the press, see the New York newspapers for November 26 through December 5, 1859. On the vagueness of distinctions between shareholders and corporations, see Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4. (autumn 1987): 144183. 54, no. 4. (autumn 1987): 144183.91 SctDP. SctDP.92 NYTr NYTr, January 30, February 2, 1860; NYT NYT, January 25, 1860; HFC to Samuel L. M. Barlow, January 16, 1860, BW box 36 (14), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL.93 NYTr NYTr, February 16, 17, 21, 29, 1860; NYH NYH, August 12, 1859, February 16, 17, 20, March 1, 1860; Seventh Annual Report of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, May 1861 Seventh Annual Report of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, May 1861 (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1861); (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1861); Proceedings in Connection with Negotiations with C Vanderbilt Proceedings in Connection with Negotiations with C Vanderbilt, BL; CV to Samuel L. M. Barlow, February 20, 1860, BW box 36 (14), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL; Kemble, 937.94 Kemble, 937; Kemble, 937; NYTr NYTr, February 29, 1860.95 CT CT, July 12, 1858. With five thousand shares with a par value of $100 each, CV owned one-eighth of the forty thousand shares of Pacific Mail, with a total par value of $5 million; NYSAD 210, 90th sess., 1867.96 NYT NYT, June 23, July 3, 4, 9, 10, November 15, December 8, 1860; NYH NYH, June 30, July 11, 12, September 13, October 17, 1860; RT RT, January 7, 1860; Edward Harold Mott, Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 12936. Congress did retroactively pay him $175,000 for his service during the remainder of 1860, followed by payments of $61,249.99 and $113,750 in 1861, and finally $58,725 for the rest of his career in steamships to California, making a total federal subsidy to CV of $596,224.99 for the California mail; SED 44, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 12936. Congress did retroactively pay him $175,000 for his service during the remainder of 1860, followed by payments of $61,249.99 and $113,750 in 1861, and finally $58,725 for the rest of his career in steamships to California, making a total federal subsidy to CV of $596,224.99 for the California mail; SED 44, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1.97 Manning, 4:762; Manning, 4:762; HW HW, October 13, 1860; Cyril Allen, "Felix Belly: Nicaraguan Canal Promoter," HAHR HAHR 37, no. 1 (February 1957): 4659. 37, no. 1 (February 1957): 4659.98 NYT NYT, February 4, 1861.99 NYT NYT, November 9, 1859. The paper reprinted the article at issue on October 18, 1859. It was full of errors and innuendo; it claimed, for example, that Walker would depart for Central America on the Philadelphia Philadelphia, saying it was one of Vanderbilt's "mail steamers." It was not.100 NYT NYT, May 26, 1858.101 Burrows & Wallace, 679. Burrows & Wallace, 679.102 HW HW, February 19, 1859.103 HW HW, March 5, 1859.104 For an example of CV's approach to management of a geographically sprawling enterprise, see his instructions to his San Francisco agents, CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS. Richard Franklin Bensel, For an example of CV's approach to management of a geographically sprawling enterprise, see his instructions to his San Francisco agents, CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS. Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), argues that the failure of the federal government to develop bureaucratic regulatory competence turned Northern capitalists in an antistate direction. James L. Huston, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), argues that the failure of the federal government to develop bureaucratic regulatory competence turned Northern capitalists in an antistate direction. James L. Huston, Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concept of Wealth Distribution, 17651900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1998), 1449, argues that only after 1880 did Americans abandon their belief in the essentially horizontal nature of the economy, and abandon older Jack-sonian mental constructs. As early as 1859, however, we see public intellectuals struggling with the problem of bigness, in the form of CV My discussion of CVs role is informed by John Lauritz Larson, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1998), 1449, argues that only after 1880 did Americans abandon their belief in the essentially horizontal nature of the economy, and abandon older Jack-sonian mental constructs. As early as 1859, however, we see public intellectuals struggling with the problem of bigness, in the form of CV My discussion of CVs role is informed by John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).105 NYT NYT, December 27, 1858; H W H W, January 9, 1859.106 Leo Tolstoy Leo Tolstoy The Sebastopol Sketches The Sebastopol Sketches (London: Penguin, 1986), 152. (London: Penguin, 1986), 152.

PART THREE KING.

Thirteen War War 1 NYT NYT, October 24, 1878. For a single-source overview of much (but not all) of the trial, see Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL.2 For an illustration of the courtroom, see For an illustration of the courtroom, see Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, December 1, 1877, Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL. For Allen's testimony, see almost any New York newspaper for November 13, 1877, including the NYT NYT.3 Strong, 3:567. Strong, 3:567.4 McPherson, 21233, 236. McPherson, 21233, 236.5 Staten Island Church Staten Island Church, 232. For a description of CVs house, see NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. Annotations in the margin of the U.S. census in 1870 show 10 Washington Place was between Mercer and Greene streets, farther west than the same address today.6 Joseph Conrad, Joseph Conrad, Nostromo: A Tale of the Seaboard Nostromo: A Tale of the Seaboard (London: Wordsworth Editions, 2000), 59. (London: Wordsworth Editions, 2000), 59.7 Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al, April 17, 1844, file D-CH 177-V Court of Chancery, NYCC; Croffut, 111. For two examples from the 1860s of writers who stressed CVs love for his mother, see MM MM, January 1865, and James Parton, Famous Americans of Recent Times Famous Americans of Recent Times (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 377. CVs reverence for his mother can be seen in the family stories told at his golden wedding anniversary, and in his deathbed comments; see (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 377. CVs reverence for his mother can be seen in the family stories told at his golden wedding anniversary, and in his deathbed comments; see Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), 27, Duke, and entry for July 12, 1876, Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYHS. (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), 27, Duke, and entry for July 12, 1876, Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYHS.8 Conrad, 456. Conrad, 456.9 NYSAD 75, 84th sess., 1861; NYSAD 125, 87th sess., 1864; HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; NYSAD 75, 84th sess., 1861; NYSAD 125, 87th sess., 1864; HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; NYT NYT, August 25, 1860, June 21, 1862; NYH NYH, September 13, 1860, August 3, 1871.10 NYH NYH, November 7, 1860; McPherson, 2345.11 CT CT, December 19, 1860; McPherson, 2507.12 Ernest A. McKay, Ernest A. McKay, The Civil War and New York City The Civil War and New York City (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 3, 33, 37, 45; Sven Beckert, (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 3, 33, 37, 45; Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 96. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 96.13 McPherson, 26275. McPherson, 26275.14 Strong, 3:114, 118; McKay, 55. Strong, 3:114, 118; McKay, 55.15 McPherson, 274; McKay, 69; Strong, 3:1234, 127; McPherson, 274; McKay, 69; Strong, 3:1234, 127; NYT NYT, April 28, 1861.16 Strong, 3:133; McPherson, 4423. Strong, 3:133; McPherson, 4423.17 William C. Jewett to Abraham Lincoln, April 11, 1861, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC. William C. Jewett to Abraham Lincoln, April 11, 1861, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC.18 OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 1: 8; OR OR ser. 1, vol. 53: 675; ser. 1, vol. 53: 675; NYT NYT, April 28, 1861; McPherson, 3156.19 NYH NYH, April 26, 1861; Beckert, 116.20 Beckert, 117; Mark R. Wilson, "The Politics of Procurement: Military Origins of Bureaucratic Autonomy," in Richard R. John, ed., Beckert, 117; Mark R. Wilson, "The Politics of Procurement: Military Origins of Bureaucratic Autonomy," in Richard R. John, ed., Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 4473; McPherson, 3123; Foner, 23. For a comprehensive study of mobilization and procurement, see Mark R. Wilson, (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 4473; McPherson, 3123; Foner, 23. For a comprehensive study of mobilization and procurement, see Mark R. Wilson, The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 18611865 The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 18611865 (Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006). (Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).21 LW Dictation. LW Dictation.22 HsR. 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. On the ubiquity of ship brokers, see the testimony of Ambrose Snow, SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. HsR. 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. On the ubiquity of ship brokers, see the testimony of Ambrose Snow, SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1.23 NYTr NYTr, June 24, August 14, 1861; NYH NYH, August 15, 1861.24 HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 4: 361.25 HED 78, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 13; HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. The charge of unfair charter prices has been made by, among others, Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, HED 78, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 13; HsR 2, part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. The charge of unfair charter prices has been made by, among others, Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, American Steamships on the Atlantic American Steamships on the Atlantic (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 241. (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1981), 241.26 George W. Cullum, George W. Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y Biographical Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y., vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1891), 7667 (George's entry number, or "Cullum number," in this authoritative guide is 1885); Senate Journal Senate Journal, March 28, 1861; Proceedings of the General Court Martial of Lt. George W. Vanderbilt, May 29, 1861, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), RG 153, NA.27 Cullum, 7667; Proceedings of the General Court Martial of Lt. George W. Vanderbilt, May 29, 1861; Cullum, 7667; Proceedings of the General Court Martial of Lt. George W. Vanderbilt, May 29, 1861; NYT NYT, June 6, 1861. For an example of an unreliable account of George (described as capable of lifting nine hundred pounds), see NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877.28 McPherson, 324; Strong, 3:203. McPherson, 324; Strong, 3:203.29 McPherson, 3736. McPherson, 3736.30 Howard K. Beale, ed., Howard K. Beale, ed., Diary of Gideon Welles Diary of Gideon Welles, vol. 1: 1861-March 30, 1864 1861-March 30, 1864 (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1960), 605, 4734; McPherson, 3746. (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1960), 605, 4734; McPherson, 3746.31 OR OR ser. 1, vol. 9: 31. ser. 1, vol. 9: 31.32 Welles Diary, 473; Welles Diary, 473; OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 7: 123.33 OR OR ser. 1, vol. 9: 31. A decade later, William B. Dinsmore hired the Pinkertons to capture Jesse James and his colleagues after the Gads Hill, Missouri, train robbery; see T. J. Stiles, ser. 1, vol. 9: 31. A decade later, William B. Dinsmore hired the Pinkertons to capture Jesse James and his colleagues after the Gads Hill, Missouri, train robbery; see T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 24952. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 24952.34 CV to William H. Seward, May 3, 1866, in SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2. CV to William H. Seward, May 3, 1866, in SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2.35 NYT NYT, November 24, 1870; CV to William H. Seward, May 3, 1866, in SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess.36 JoC JoC, March 22, 1862; John Niven, ed., The Salmon P. Chase Papers The Salmon P. Chase Papers, vol. 1 (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1993), 3368; OR OR ser. 1, vol. 14: 256. ser. 1, vol. 14: 256.37 OR OR ser. 1, vol. 8: 642, vol. 14: ser. 1, vol. 8: 642, vol. 14: 29; JoC 29; JoC, March 22, 1862; LT, May 5, 1862.38 CV to EMS, March 31, 1862, reel 2, EMSP. Goldsborough's orders appear in CV to EMS, March 31, 1862, reel 2, EMSP. Goldsborough's orders appear in OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 7: 1445. See also the report to Stanton by Assistant Secretary of War P. H. Watson, March 28, 1862, OR OR ser. 1, vol. 14: 46. ser. 1, vol. 14: 46.39 OR OR ser. 1, vol. 14: 477; ser. 1, vol. 14: 477; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. 1 (New York: Century Co., 1887), 707.40 Salmon P. Chase Papers Salmon P. Chase Papers, 1:338; OR OR ser. 1, vol. 14: 157; Doris Kearns Goodwin, ser. 1, vol. 14: 157; Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 4369. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 4369.41 McPherson, 445. McPherson, 445.42 McPherson, 444; Stiles, 1689. The extent of the government's role in the suspension of gold payments is disputed by historians, but certainly it played a role. See Stuart Banner, "The Origin of the New York Stock Exchange, 17911860," McPherson, 444; Stiles, 1689. The extent of the government's role in the suspension of gold payments is disputed by historians, but certainly it played a role. See Stuart Banner, "The Origin of the New York Stock Exchange, 17911860," Journal of Legal Studies Journal of Legal Studies 27, no. 1 (January 1998): 11340; Robert P. Sharkey 27, no. 1 (January 1998): 11340; Robert P. Sharkey Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1959), 1528; James K. Kindahl, "Economic Factors in Specie Resumption, 18651879," in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert W. Fogel, eds., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1959), 1528; James K. Kindahl, "Economic Factors in Specie Resumption, 18651879," in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert W. Fogel, eds., The Reinterpretation of American Economic History The Reinterpretation of American Economic History (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 46879; Irwin Ungter, (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 46879; Irwin Ungter, The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 18651879 The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 18651879 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 137; Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 137; Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 18671960 A Monetary History of the United States, 18671960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), 314. See also Esther Rogoff Taus, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), 314. See also Esther Rogoff Taus, Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 5764. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 5764.43 Herman E. Krooss, ed., Herman E. Krooss, ed., Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States Documentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1965), 13156. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1965), 13156.44 McPherson, 4457; Sharkey, 2850; McKay, 122; Fowler, 1534. McPherson, 4457; Sharkey, 2850; McKay, 122; Fowler, 1534.45 Krooss, 20856; Taus, 79, 856, 102, 112; Richard Franklin Bensel, Krooss, 20856; Taus, 79, 856, 102, 112; Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18651877 Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18651877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 26274, 2878; Richard Sylla, "Federal Policy, Banking Market Structure, and Capital Mobilization in the United States, 18631913," (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 26274, 2878; Richard Sylla, "Federal Policy, Banking Market Structure, and Capital Mobilization in the United States, 18631913," JEH JEH 29, no. 4 (December 1969): 65786. Stuart Banner, "The Origin of the New York Stock Exchange," argues that by 1860 the New York Stock & Exchange Board was already the premier stock exchange in the United States, effectively setting prices nationwide. 29, no. 4 (December 1969): 65786. Stuart Banner, "The Origin of the New York Stock Exchange," argues that by 1860 the New York Stock & Exchange Board was already the premier stock exchange in the United States, effectively setting prices nationwide.46 Entry for August 22, 1861, David Mitchell Turnure Journal, NYHS; Bensel, 1689. Entry for August 22, 1861, David Mitchell Turnure Journal, NYHS; Bensel, 1689.47 McPherson, 44253; Bensel, 15078; John Jay Knox, McPherson, 44253; Bensel, 15078; John Jay Knox, A History of Banking in the United States A History of Banking in the United States (New York: Augustus M. Kelley 1969, orig. pub. 1903), 91104. Boston merchant Amasa Walker, for example, duplicated McCulloch's remarks; see Bensel, 282. (New York: Augustus M. Kelley 1969, orig. pub. 1903), 91104. Boston merchant Amasa Walker, for example, duplicated McCulloch's remarks; see Bensel, 282.48 McPherson, 447; Fowler, 735, 1567; Bensel, 152, 162. Foreign coins were actually legal tender in the United States until 1857; Krooss, 1059. McPherson, 447; Fowler, 735, 1567; Bensel, 152, 162. Foreign coins were actually legal tender in the United States until 1857; Krooss, 1059.49 NYH NYH, January 20, 1869.50 Since imports were paid in gold, the gold premium represented a kind of tariff. In states that thrived on international commerce, such as New York, leading businessmen favored a return to gold-based currency, as opposed to those in manufacturing centers, such as iron-and-coal-producing Pennsylvania, who competed with English imports. Railroad managers, who imported British rails, favored a gold standard and low tariffs. See Stanley Cohen, "Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-Examination," Since imports were paid in gold, the gold premium represented a kind of tariff. In states that thrived on international commerce, such as New York, leading businessmen favored a return to gold-based currency, as opposed to those in manufacturing centers, such as iron-and-coal-producing Pennsylvania, who competed with English imports. Railroad managers, who imported British rails, favored a gold standard and low tariffs. See Stanley Cohen, "Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-Examination," Mississippi Valley Historical Review Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 46, no. 1 (June 1959): 6790.51 HC HC, September 19, 1861; Seventh Annual Report of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, May 1861 Seventh Annual Report of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, May 1861 (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1861); (New York: G. F. Nesbitt & Co., 1861); Report of the President to the Stockholders, Pacific Mail Steamship Company Report of the President to the Stockholders, Pacific Mail Steamship Company (n.p.: 1868); CV to Chester Arthur, October 8, 1861, reel 1, Chester A. Arthur Papers, LOC; (n.p.: 1868); CV to Chester Arthur, October 8, 1861, reel 1, Chester A. Arthur Papers, LOC; CT CT, November 11, 1861; Directors' Minutes, May 15, 1861, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR; NYSAD 100, 85th sess., 1862. The War Department's chartering of CVs transatlantic steamers, particularly the Vanderbilt Vanderbilt, led him to discontinue the European line; see RGD, NYC 341:167.52 Beckert, 1356; McKay, 141; Fowler, 54, 57, 73; Beckert, 1356; McKay, 141; Fowler, 54, 57, 73; Harper's New Monthly Magazine Harper's New Monthly Magazine, April 1865.53 RGD, NYC 375:200a4; RGD, NYC 375:200a4; SA SA, November 15, 1862; RT RT, June 7, 1862.54 Andrew Shuman to William H. Seward, August 9, 1861, Walter H. Gaines and Henry S. Rowland to Abraham Lincoln, December 21, 1862, Franz Sigel to Abraham Lincoln, March 17, 1863, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC; John D. Hayes, ed., Andrew Shuman to William H. Seward, August 9, 1861, Walter H. Gaines and Henry S. Rowland to Abraham Lincoln, December 21, 1862, Franz Sigel to Abraham Lincoln, March 17, 1863, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC; John D. Hayes, ed., Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from his Civil War Letters Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from his Civil War Letters, vol. 1: The Mission, 18601862 The Mission, 18601862 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), 112; Frames 237 and 244, Annual List, 1862, District 6, Division 3, Annual Lists, 18623, District 1, New York, roll 65, Internal Revenue Assessment Lists for New York and New Jersey, 18621866: Microfilm Publication M603, NA. On the problem of dividends in tax reporting, see Rufus S. Tucker, "The Distribution of Income Among Taxpayers in the United States," (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), 112; Frames 237 and 244, Annual List, 1862, District 6, Division 3, Annual Lists, 18623, District 1, New York, roll 65, Internal Revenue Assessment Lists for New York and New Jersey, 18621866: Microfilm Publication M603, NA. On the problem of dividends in tax reporting, see Rufus S. Tucker, "The Distribution of Income Among Taxpayers in the United States," Quarterly Journal of Economics Quarterly Journal of Economics 52, no. 4 (August 1938): 54787. 52, no. 4 (August 1938): 54787.55 Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, May 1868; Forest and Stream Forest and Stream, August 28, 1873.56 RGD, NYC 374:1; Strong, 3:21. RGD, NYC 374:1; Strong, 3:21.57 Burrows & Wallace, 87781. Melvin L. Adelman argues that the rise of the respectability of harness racing reflected the rise of a new elite in New York; see "The First Modern Sport in America: Harness Racing in New York City, 18251870," Burrows & Wallace, 87781. Melvin L. Adelman argues that the rise of the respectability of harness racing reflected the rise of a new elite in New York; see "The First Modern Sport in America: Harness Racing in New York City, 18251870," Journal of Sport History Journal of Sport History 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532. 8, no. 1 (spring 1981): 532.58 Beckert, 1159, 1367; Fowler, dedication page. Fowler also dedicated it to Salmon P. Chase and George S. Boutwell, secretaries of the treasury. His dedication to CV reads, "who has aided so powerfully to foster the steam industries of the nation on land and water." For an overview of this period, see Burrows & Wallace, 87282. Beckert, 1159, 1367; Fowler, dedication page. Fowler also dedicated it to Salmon P. Chase and George S. Boutwell, secretaries of the treasury. His dedication to CV reads, "who has aided so powerfully to foster the steam industries of the nation on land and water." For an overview of this period, see Burrows & Wallace, 87282.59 McPherson, 3146, 5467; Charles G. Summersell, ed., McPherson, 3146, 5467; Charles G. Summersell, ed., The Journal of George Townley Fullam The Journal of George Townley Fullam (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 414. (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 414.60 SED 71, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 6. SED 71, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 6.61 HW, May HW, May 3, 1862; 3, 1862; OR OR ser. 1, vol. 14: 3656; HsR 28, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1. ser. 1, vol. 14: 3656; HsR 28, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1.62 OR OR ser. 3, vol. 2: 525. ser. 3, vol. 2: 525.63 OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 1: 538.64 SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. These quotes come from CVs testimony before Congress a few months later, on December 30, 1862. Regarding the dates of these conversations, Banks reported on November 1 that he left Washington on October 27; SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. These quotes come from CVs testimony before Congress a few months later, on December 30, 1862. Regarding the dates of these conversations, Banks reported on November 1 that he left Washington on October 27; OR OR ser. 3, vol. 2: 7123. See also James G. Hollandsworth Jr., ser. 3, vol. 2: 7123. See also James G. Hollandsworth Jr., Pretense of Glory: The Life of General Nathaniel P. Banks Pretense of Glory: The Life of General Nathaniel P. Banks (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 838. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 838.65 SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1.66 Nathaniel P. Banks to CV, November 3, 1862, CV to Nathaniel P. Banks, November 3, 4, 1862, cont. 24, Nathaniel P. Banks Papers, LOC; CV to EMS, January 24, 1863, reel 4, EMSP; SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; Nathaniel P. Banks to CV, November 3, 1862, CV to Nathaniel P. Banks, November 3, 4, 1862, cont. 24, Nathaniel P. Banks Papers, LOC; CV to EMS, January 24, 1863, reel 4, EMSP; SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; OR OR ser. 3, vol. 2: 7123. ser. 3, vol. 2: 7123.67 SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; Senate Misc. Doc. 27, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. CV has been criticized for not personally inspecting all of the scores of vessels chartered for the expedition. But as SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; Senate Misc. Doc. 27, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1. CV has been criticized for not personally inspecting all of the scores of vessels chartered for the expedition. But as CT CT, January 15, 1863, justly noted, he went by the insurance underwriters' ratings, which he would have relied on if he had chartered the ships for his own use. CV had earlier testified, "I seldom go aboard of ships unless to go somewhere;" HsR 2, Part 2, 37th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2. On the censure resolution, see Senate Journal, January 21, 27, 29, 1863.68 NYTr NYTr, December 5, 1862.69 McPherson, 624. For a report from aboard ship on the expedition, see McPherson, 624. For a report from aboard ship on the expedition, see NYTr NYTr, December 29, 1862.70 Raphael Semmes, Raphael Semmes, Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996, orig. pub. 1868), 52930; Fullam Journal, 601. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996, orig. pub. 1868), 52930; Fullam Journal, 601.71 NYT NYT, December 28, 1862.72 George Willis Read, ed., George Willis Read, ed., A Pioneer of 1850: George Willis Read, 18191880 A Pioneer of 1850: George Willis Read, 18191880 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1927), 1302; (Boston: Little, Brown, 1927), 1302; NYT NYT, December 28, 1862; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, January 10, 1863.73 Semmes, 535; Fullam, 66; NYT, December 28, 1862; Semmes, 535; Fullam, 66; NYT, December 28, 1862; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, January 10, 1863; LT LT, January 14, 1863; CT CT, December 31, 1862; OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 1: 7823.74 NYT NYT, December 29, 1862.75 OR Navy OR Navy, ser. 1, vol. 1: 6045.76 Semmes, 672, 737; HED 1, part 2, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; McPherson, 547. The Semmes, 672, 737; HED 1, part 2, 38th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2; McPherson, 547. The Vanderbilt Vanderbilt, though much sought after by navy officers, had problems peculiar to its adaptation to naval service. At the end of commercial voyages, the jet condensers that allowed it to boil seawater ordinarily would be cleared of scale formed by boiling brine; under continuous use, scale buildup and corrosion became a serious problem; Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, 2445.77 Senate Journal, July 17, 1862; SED 30, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; Cullum, 7667. For reports of the other George W. Vanderbilt, see Senate Journal, July 17, 1862; SED 30, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; Cullum, 7667. For reports of the other George W. Vanderbilt, see OR OR ser. 1, vol. 21: 59, vol. 27, part 1: 9812. In CVs obituaries and elsewhere, it would be claimed that George fell sick during the Corinth campaign in early 1862. No direct evidence supports the story. ser. 1, vol. 21: 59, vol. 27, part 1: 9812. In CVs obituaries and elsewhere, it would be claimed that George fell sick during the Corinth campaign in early 1862. No direct evidence supports the story. NYS NYS, December 9, 1885, claimed that George had consumption, but the accuracy of this report is impossible to assess.

Fourteen The Origins of Empire The Origins of Empire 1 NYTr NYTr, February 6, 1879. See also NYH NYH, October 3, 1869.2 Sven Beckert, Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York; Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1469. (New York; Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1469.3 SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; SR 75, 37th Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1; CT CT, January 13, 1863.4 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867.5 RG RG, January 12, 1877.6 RG RG, January 12, 1877.7 These changes are often located at the very end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, when they took full hold on the economy as a whole, but they would be well under way before the end of CVs life. See Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," These changes are often located at the very end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, when they took full hold on the economy as a whole, but they would be well under way before the end of CVs life. See Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Alan Trachtenberg, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), 46, 578. (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), 46, 578.8 Alfred D. Chandler, Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 112, 79121; Trachtenberg, 310. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 112, 79121; Trachtenberg, 310.9 For examples of this thinking among contemporaries and later writers, see Henry Clews, For examples of this thinking among contemporaries and later writers, see Henry Clews, Twenty-Eight Years in Wall Street Twenty-Eight Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing, 1888), 110, and Edward J. Renehan Jr., (New York: Irving Publishing, 1888), 110, and Edward J. Renehan Jr., Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 239. (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 239.10 For a portrayal of CVs plans as a long-laid campaign, see the highly influential "A Chapter of Erie," For a portrayal of CVs plans as a long-laid campaign, see the highly influential "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869, 30106, in which CFA writes, "His object has been to make himself the virtual master of all by making himself absolute lord of the railways." I may be accused here of misrepresenting CFA and the historiography; CFA, like many historians, hedges on CVs thinking. My point is merely to represent the general tenor of the depictions of CVs method. See, for example, Fowler, 4945.11 This observation reflects a broad investigation of CVs life. See also Chauncey M. Depew, This observation reflects a broad investigation of CVs life. See also Chauncey M. Depew, My Memories of Eighty Years My Memories of Eighty Years (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 2289. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 2289.12 CV to Edwin D. Morgan, February 16, 1863, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL. CV to Edwin D. Morgan, February 16, 1863, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL.13 LW Dictation. LW Dictation.14 NYH NYH, January 20, 1869. On railroads' size relative to other enterprises, see Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., The Railroads, the Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings The Railroads, the Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 43. On the value of Harlem shares, see NYSAD 175, 86th sess., 1863. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 43. On the value of Harlem shares, see NYSAD 175, 86th sess., 1863.15 NYSAD 175, 86th sess., 1863; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 114, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 175, 86th sess., 1863; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 114, 90th sess., 1867; NYH NYH, March 25, 1863.16 See HFC's testimony in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867. See also Lane, 1889; See HFC's testimony in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867. See also Lane, 1889; NYT NYT, June 30, 1858, April 15, 1859; Directors' Minutes, May 4, 1859, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR; Alvin F. Harlow, The Road of the Century: The Story of the New York Central The Road of the Century: The Story of the New York Central (New York: Creative Age Press, 1947), 166; Edward Hungerford, (New York: Creative Age Press, 1947), 166; Edward Hungerford, Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1938), 1206. For a precise description of a journey (albeit a customized one) from the depot north, showing how the horses hauled cars to Forty-second Street, see (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1938), 1206. For a precise description of a journey (albeit a customized one) from the depot north, showing how the horses hauled cars to Forty-second Street, see NYT NYT, July 6, 1865.17 Fowler, 199201, 2035. Fowler, 199201, 2035.18 Hudson C. Tanner, Hudson C. Tanner, "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 230. (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 230.19 NYSAD 175, 86th sess., February 17, 1863, shows that the Harlem had unusually high revenues and expenses per ton/mile, making it a ripe target for reform. NYSAD 175, 86th sess., February 17, 1863, shows that the Harlem had unusually high revenues and expenses per ton/mile, making it a ripe target for reform.20 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867.21 It is nearly impossible to accurately estimate how many shares anyone-least of all CV-held in the 1860s and 70s. As will be seen, CV routinely transferred shares he owned into the names of others to disguise his holdings. Both press reports and WHV's testimony suggest that, by the end of the events described at least, CV owned half of the company's shares, not including those held by allies and family members. See It is nearly impossible to accurately estimate how many shares anyone-least of all CV-held in the 1860s and 70s. As will be seen, CV routinely transferred shares he owned into the names of others to disguise his holdings. Both press reports and WHV's testimony suggest that, by the end of the events described at least, CV owned half of the company's shares, not including those held by allies and family members. See HW HW, July 11, 1863; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., January 18, 1867. These reports, however, came later; on May 18, 1863, CV voted only 8,801 out of more than 114,000 shares (and 88,978 voted) at the annual stockholders' meeting and election; Directors' Minutes, May 18, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR.22 McPherson, 3234; Mark Wahlgren Summers, McPherson, 3234; Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Era of Good Stealings The Era of Good Stealings (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 1623. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 1623.23 HW HW, July ii ii, 1863; Burrows & Wallace, 917.24 RGD, NYC 342:300D. See also Smith, 294, for an amusing description of Law. RGD, NYC 342:300D. See also Smith, 294, for an amusing description of Law.25 NYH NYH, March 26, 1864. For examples of reports that name Law, see NYTr NYTr, April 24, 1863; Strong, 3:313; NYT NYT, April 25, 1863. See also Lane, 1912.26 Strong, 3:313; Strong, 3:313; NYTr NYTr, April 24, 1863; NYH NYH, April 24, 1863; HW HW, July 11, 1863. In truth, money-driven attempts to build a Broadway railroad (and the belief that corrupt railroad men had bought the legislature) had been a regular feature in Albany in recent years; see NYH NYH, January 1, 1860.27 Burrows & Wallace, 8358; Ernest A. McKay, Burrows & Wallace, 8358; Ernest A. McKay, The Civil War and New York City The Civil War and New York City (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 2303. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 2303.28 NYH NYH, April 22, 24, 1863; HW HW, July 11, 1863; Fowler, 205; see also 11, 1863; Fowler, 205; see also NYH NYH, April 24, 1863; Directors' Minutes, April 22, 23, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR.29 NYH NYH, April 24, 25, 1863; NYT NYT, April 25, 1863; Strong, 3:313.30 CV to EC, May 13, 1863, fold. 3, box 81, ECP. CV to EC, May 13, 1863, fold. 3, box 81, ECP.31 Ibid.; Directors' Minutes, May 18, 19, 29, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. The new board was seen as "the Vanderbilt ticket;" Ibid.; Directors' Minutes, May 18, 19, 29, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. The new board was seen as "the Vanderbilt ticket;" PS PS, May 28, 1863. The HRR minutes show that CV voted only 8,801 out of the 88,978 shares represented at the stockholders' meeting (about 114,000 existed). HFC had 1,350, AS had two thousand, and JHB had three thousand, all of which really might have been CVs property, held in their names. To achieve victory, then, CV drew upon the support of men who controlled many more shares, such as A. B. Baylis with 19,970, and Henry G. Stebbins (JLW's onetime partner) with 10,650, though they may have been holding shares for CV as well.32 Directors' Minutes, May 18, 19, 29, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, May 18, 19, 29, 1863, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR.33 NYH NYH, April 22, 24, May 11, 1863; HW HW, July 11, 1863. 11, 1863.34 H W H W, July 11, 1863; NYH NYH, June 26, 1863. Henry Clews, Fifty Years in Wall Street Fifty Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 111, and Fowler, 2068, repeat similar versions of this story. (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 111, and Fowler, 2068, repeat similar versions of this story.35 NYH NYH, June 26, 1863; LW Dictation.36 NYH NYH, June 269, July 13, 1863.37 HW HW, July 11, 1863.38 Ibid.; Ibid.; NYH NYH, July 15, 1863; Independent Independent, July 2, 1863; Strong, 3:328.39 At the election of 1864, CV voted 29,607 shares; Directors' Minutes, May 17, 1864, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. As ever, it is impossible to know how many he really owned. On February 5, 1867, CV refused to tell a committee of the state legislature how much Harlem stock he owned, but his son William put the total at about half of the total number of shares; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. At the election of 1864, CV voted 29,607 shares; Directors' Minutes, May 17, 1864, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. As ever, it is impossible to know how many he really owned. On February 5, 1867, CV refused to tell a committee of the state legislature how much Harlem stock he owned, but his son William put the total at about half of the total number of shares; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.40 Strong, 3:32930. Strong, 3:32930.41 Seymour J. Mandelbaum, Seymour J. Mandelbaum, Boss Tweed's New York Boss Tweed's New York (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 58, 6670. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 58, 6670.42 Summers, Summers, Good Stealings Good Stealings, 1629, and throughout; Mark Wahlgren Summers, "'To Make the Wheels Revolve We Must Have Grease': Barrel Politics in the Gilded Age," Journal of Policy History Journal of Policy History 14, no. 1 (2002): 4972; Seymour J. Mandelbaum, 14, no. 1 (2002): 4972; Seymour J. Mandelbaum, Boss Tweed's New York Boss Tweed's New York (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 4675. Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin argue in (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 4675. Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin argue in Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 8 (see also 845), that the "uncomfortably disreputable associations and activities" of mass party politics that rose in the 1830s alienated elites. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 8 (see also 845), that the "uncomfortably disreputable associations and activities" of mass party politics that rose in the 1830s alienated elites.43 Clews, 111; Fowler, 124; Medbery 923, 98. Lane, 193, accepts that Drew fought CV in the 1863 corner. Clews, 111; Fowler, 124; Medbery 923, 98. Lane, 193, accepts that Drew fought CV in the 1863 corner.44 RGD, NYC 366:300c. RGD, NYC 366:300c.45 Clifford Browder, author of Clifford Browder, author of The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), a poorly sourced and unsatisfying biography of Drew, argues, 1012, that Drew did not take part in the Harlem corner of 1863. I believe he is correct. Edmund Clarence Stedman, in (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), a poorly sourced and unsatisfying biography of Drew, argues, 1012, that Drew did not take part in the Harlem corner of 1863. I believe he is correct. Edmund Clarence Stedman, in The New York Stock Exchange The New York Stock Exchange (New York: Stock Exchange Historical Company, 1905), 174, observed that Drew "is said" to have opposed CV in the corner, but he appears to be simply citing Clews. (New York: Stock Exchange Historical Company, 1905), 174, observed that Drew "is said" to have opposed CV in the corner, but he appears to be simply citing Clews.46 OR OR ser. 3, vol. 3: 1083; J. C. Buckhout to CV February 11, May 23, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR. ser. 3, vol. 3: 1083; J. C. Buckhout to CV February 11, May 23, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR.47 McKay, 21629. McKay, 21629.48 McKay, 195210, 216; Burrows & Wallace, 88799. Maps in Burrows & Wallace, 891, and McKay, 195210, 216; Burrows & Wallace, 88799. Maps in Burrows & Wallace, 891, and NYH NYH, July 20, 1863, show no fires in the vicinity of CVs home.49 Burrows & Wallace, 896. On HFC and AS's continuing political prominence, see Strong, 3:101, 513. Burrows & Wallace, 896. On HFC and AS's continuing political prominence, see Strong, 3:101, 513.50 Jay Gould to EC, August 20, 1863, fold. 5, box 38, ECP. Jay Gould to EC, August 20, 1863, fold. 5, box 38, ECP.51 Klein, 15, 2754, 723; RGD, NYC 347:737. Klein's biography remains definitive. Klein, 15, 2754, 723; RGD, NYC 347:737. Klein's biography remains definitive.52 George Rogers Taylor and Irene D. Neu, George Rogers Taylor and Irene D. Neu, The American Railroad Network, 18611890 The American Railroad Network, 18611890 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 229. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 229.53 NYT NYT, November 24, 1854; NYSAD 114, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880.54 See the testimony of Edwin D. Worcester, HFC, AS, and Robert L. Banks, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. The importance of local freight to the Central can be seen from a chart provided in testimony by Worcester before Congress: in 1862, through freight amounted to 777,000 tons, local 610,000; in 1863, through 824,000, local 624,000; and local surpassed through in 1864, 790,000 to 766,000 through. Due to lesser mileage on local freight, the earnings from through freight were more than double. See SR 307, part 2, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 3, 158. See the testimony of Edwin D. Worcester, HFC, AS, and Robert L. Banks, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. The importance of local freight to the Central can be seen from a chart provided in testimony by Worcester before Congress: in 1862, through freight amounted to 777,000 tons, local 610,000; in 1863, through 824,000, local 624,000; and local surpassed through in 1864, 790,000 to 766,000 through. Due to lesser mileage on local freight, the earnings from through freight were more than double. See SR 307, part 2, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 3, 158.55 Julius Grodinsky Julius Grodinsky Railroad Consolidation: Its Economics and Controlling Principles Railroad Consolidation: Its Economics and Controlling Principles (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1930), 2931; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1930), 2931; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 10, 15960. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 10, 15960.56 Irene D. Neu, Irene D. Neu, Erastus Corning: Merchant and Financier, 17941872 Erastus Corning: Merchant and Financier, 17941872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960), 113, 43, 1614; Harlow, 19, 112; Hungerford, 723, 93; (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960), 113, 43, 1614; Harlow, 19, 112; Hungerford, 723, 93; NYT NYT, April 10, 1872; JMD to EC, February 1, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, CV to EC, September 15, 1863, HFC to EC, September 21, 1863, fold. 3, box 82, ECP.57 Strong, 3:416; Fowler, 178; Smith, 2523. See also RGD, NYC 349:983, which notes Jerome was considered to be of good character, "& reputed very strong." Strong, 3:416; Fowler, 178; Smith, 2523. See also RGD, NYC 349:983, which notes Jerome was considered to be of good character, "& reputed very strong."58 Jay Gould to EC, November 28, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Watts Sherman to EC, October 22, 1863, fold. 3, box 82, ECP; Directors' Minutes, October 20, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 247, NYCRR; Neu, Jay Gould to EC, November 28, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Watts Sherman to EC, October 22, 1863, fold. 3, box 82, ECP; Directors' Minutes, October 20, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 247, NYCRR; Neu, Corning Corning, 1734. For an example of a nearly contemporary HR complaint to the NYC, see Samuel Sloan to EC, March 17, 1864, copied in Executive Committee Minutes, March 24, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 249, and cited in Directors' Minutes, March 18, 1864, NYC, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR.59 CV to EC, November 12, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Watts Sherman to EC, December 7, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP; Smith, 379. CV to EC, November 12, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Watts Sherman to EC, December 7, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP; Smith, 379.60 Watts Sherman to EC, October 22, 1863, fold. 3, box 82; JHB to EC, November 11, 19, 1863, CV to EC, November 12, 1863, fold. 7, box 38; all in ECP. See also Corning's testimony in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Watts Sherman to EC, October 22, 1863, fold. 3, box 82; JHB to EC, November 11, 19, 1863, CV to EC, November 12, 1863, fold. 7, box 38; all in ECP. See also Corning's testimony in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.61 NYH NYH, November 19, 1863, in NYT NYT, November 28, 1863. Jerome, who owned a controlling interest in NYT NYT, appears to have pushed it to attack the Central's management, calling it the Democratic ring that ran New York (see Jay Gould to EC, November 28, 1863, JHB to EC, fold. 7, box 38, ECP). The notion that the Central under EC and Richmond "was itself the Democratic political organization," as argued by Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 25, is a historical truism that deserves reexamination. Unquestionably EC and Richmond were leaders of the state's Democratic Party, and used their power in the railroad to gain influence. But even cynical contemporaries admitted that they did not control the government. See, for example, the (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 25, is a historical truism that deserves reexamination. Unquestionably EC and Richmond were leaders of the state's Democratic Party, and used their power in the railroad to gain influence. But even cynical contemporaries admitted that they did not control the government. See, for example, the Nation Nation, April 18, 1867. And John V. L. Pruyn objected to directors being chosen because of their political affiliations (in this case, Republican); see entry for November 10, 1864, John V. L. Pruyn Journal, box 2, John V. L. Pruyn Papers, NYSL.62 CV to EC, November 20, 1863, fold., box 38, ECP. CV to EC, November 20, 1863, fold., box 38, ECP.63 JHB to EC, November 20, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Leonard W. Jerome to CV enclosed in CV to EC, December 5, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP. JHB to EC, November 20, 1863, fold. 7, box 38, Leonard W. Jerome to CV enclosed in CV to EC, December 5, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP.64 NYT NYT, December 3, 1863.65 CT CT, December 8, 1863; NYT NYT, December 9, 1863; NYH NYH, December 9, 1863.66 NYH NYH, December 13, 1863; entry for December 11, 1863, Pruyn Journal; Richard M. Schell to EC, December 11, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP.67 CV to EC, December 25, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP; Neu, CV to EC, December 25, 1863, fold. 2, box 39, ECP; Neu, Erastus Corning Erastus Corning, 1778. In relation to this, see CV to Samuel L. M. Barlow, March 6, 1860, BW box 36 (14), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL.68 For a precise description of 10 Washington Place, see For a precise description of 10 Washington Place, see NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. In the 1870 U.S. census, CV had five servants resident at 10 Washington Place, all born in Ireland.69 This account of CVs golden wedding celebration is from This account of CVs golden wedding celebration is from NYTr NYTr, December 21, 1863, and Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), copy in Duke. The (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1864), copy in Duke. The Memorial Memorial identifies Ann S. Stephens as the author of the identifies Ann S. Stephens as the author of the Tribune Tribune story. story.70 Smith, 409; RGD, NYC 343:316; Certificate of Incorporation, November 27, 1863, Certificate of Increase of the Capital Stock, October 5, 1866, Atlantic Mail Steamship Company, NYCC. Allen and Garrison did not appear as the original incorporators; they were JHB, Edward A. Quintard (Charles Morgan's son-in-law), Edward Mott Robinson, Samuel G. Wheeler, Charles A. Gould, and William Barton Allen (son of Daniel Allen). Once in operation, both Allen and Cornelius Garrison served as directors, with their headquarters at 5 Bowling Green, CVs old office. See also Smith, 409; RGD, NYC 343:316; Certificate of Incorporation, November 27, 1863, Certificate of Increase of the Capital Stock, October 5, 1866, Atlantic Mail Steamship Company, NYCC. Allen and Garrison did not appear as the original incorporators; they were JHB, Edward A. Quintard (Charles Morgan's son-in-law), Edward Mott Robinson, Samuel G. Wheeler, Charles A. Gould, and William Barton Allen (son of Daniel Allen). Once in operation, both Allen and Cornelius Garrison served as directors, with their headquarters at 5 Bowling Green, CVs old office. See also CT CT, July 20, 1864. On Osgood, see Smith, 409; NYT NYT, May 4, 1867; NYH NYH, March 19, 1868.71 NYTr NYTr, December 21, 1863.72 NYS NYS, December 19, 22, 1877; NYH NYH, December 27, 1877, in Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL; NYTr NYTr, March 13, 18, 1878; Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, March 19, 1868, reel 2, HGP. It appears that CJV had bad checks outstanding that very evening; see HG to Hanson A. Risley, March 27, 1864, Hanson A. Risley Papers, Duke. Note also that he had resumed his practice of befriending leading politicians, notably Schuyler Colfax, who became speaker of the house in 1863, with CJV claiming to have helped secure him the post; Willard H. Smith, Schuyler Colfax: The Changing Fortunes of a Political Idol Schuyler Colfax: The Changing Fortunes of a Political Idol (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1952), 1825. (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1952), 1825.73 NYS NYS, December 9, 1885; NYSAD 75, 84th sess., 1861; NYSAD 175, 86th sess., 1863; NYSAD 125, 87th sess., 1864. In 1863, WHV owned five carriages and 160 ounces of silver plate, indications of his prosperity; Annual List, May 1, 1863, Collection District 1, Division 21, New York, New York, District 1: Annual Lists, 18623, roll 38, Internal Revenue Assessment Lists for New York and New Jersey, 18621866, Microfilm Publication M603, NA. He had no income listed, suggesting he earned the bulk of his income through corporate dividends, which were taxed at the source.74 Memorial of the Golden Wedding; NYTr Memorial of the Golden Wedding; NYTr, January 5, 1877; Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family: A Biographical Account of the Descendants of Cornelius and Sophia Johnson Vanderbilt Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family: A Biographical Account of the Descendants of Cornelius and Sophia Johnson Vanderbilt (n.p., 1989), 22. (n.p., 1989), 22.75 NYS NYS, December 9, 1885; NYT NYT, February 4, 1864. January 1, 1864, is usually stated as George's death date. The NYT NYT report on George's funeral gives December 31; as it was the account closest in time to the event, and had other telling details, I am accepting December 31. report on George's funeral gives December 31; as it was the account closest in time to the event, and had other telling details, I am accepting December 31.76 NYT NYT, February 4, 1864; NYS NYS, December 15, 1877; NYTr NYTr, November 2, 1878; NYH NYH, March 5, 1879; Frontis, Directors' Minutes, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; NYS NYS, December 9, 1885.77 SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2. SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2.78 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; CT CT, February 25, 1866. James A. Ward discusses the nation-state metaphor for railroads in Railroads and the Character of America, 18201851 Railroads and the Character of America, 18201851 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986). (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986).79 A mysterious bill to consolidate the Harlem and the New York Central drove this commentary; A mysterious bill to consolidate the Harlem and the New York Central drove this commentary; NYT NYT, February 6, 1864; RT RT, February 13, 1864; NYH NYH, February 25, 1864.80 Directors' Minutes, January 27, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; J. C. Buckhout to CV, February 11, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, January 27, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; J. C. Buckhout to CV, February 11, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR; RT RT, May 14, 1864; NYT NYT, April 16, 1864, March 19, 1866; Lane, 20815; Alvin F. Harlow, The Road of the Century: The Story of the New York Central The Road of the Century: The Story of the New York Central (New York: Creative Age Press, 1947), 164, 180. Harlow argues that CVs action in participating in the creation of the Athens railroad was "inexplicable." It makes perfect sense, however, if CV was not yet the hidden power in the HR when the Athens project was conceived. (New York: Creative Age Press, 1947), 164, 180. Harlow argues that CVs action in participating in the creation of the Athens railroad was "inexplicable." It makes perfect sense, however, if CV was not yet the hidden power in the HR when the Athens project was conceived.81 Smith, 2657; Fowler, 1624; RGD, NYC 265:237. Smith, 2657; Fowler, 1624; RGD, NYC 265:237.82 Executive Committee Minutes, April 11, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 249; Directors' Minutes, June 8, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 247; both NYCRR. Executive Committee Minutes, April 11, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 249; Directors' Minutes, June 8, 1863, HR, oversize vol. 247; both NYCRR.83 The basic story told by Clews, 1079, appeared much earlier in The basic story told by Clews, 1079, appeared much earlier in Harper's New Monthly Magazine Harper's New Monthly Magazine, April 1865. In Harper's Harper's, however, the management of the Hudson corner was contrasted with CVs handling of the Harlem corners, rather than attributed to CV himself.84 Clews, 1079; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Even Lane, 20811, who readily accepts most of Clews's anecdotes, expresses doubts about CVs role in the HR corner. Tellingly, CV abandoned the double-tracking of the HR after he took control of the HRR. Clews, 1079; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Even Lane, 20811, who readily accepts most of Clews's anecdotes, expresses doubts about CVs role in the HR corner. Tellingly, CV abandoned the double-tracking of the HR after he took control of the HRR.85 NYH NYH, October 19, 30, 1863; Lane, 195. It is clear from NYH NYH, September 7, 1863, that the purchase of the stage lines had never been effected.86 Directors' Minutes, March 12, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, March 12, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; NYT NYT, March 17, 1864; NYH NYH, March 25, 26, April 30, 1864; Lane, 1956.87 Browder, 66. Browder, 66.88 NYH NYH, April 21, 1864; Lane, 1948. Fowler, 3504, not only claims that Drew was a bear in Harlem, but also provides an excellent account of calls. Browder, 1036, agrees that Drew took a bear position in Harlem in 1864.89 Fowler, 351. See also Clews, 1079; Fowler, 351. See also Clews, 1079; BM BM, May 1864.90 CT CT, April 9, 1864; Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal, April 13, 1864; Strong, 3:430. On the Sanitary Commission, see McPherson, 4803.91 Fowler, 2846; Fowler, 2846; NYT NYT, April 16, 1864.92 NYH NYH, April 17, 19, 21, 1864; EP in CT EP in CT, April 23, 1864; NYT NYT, April 22, 1864; Medbery 241; Fowler, 714, 260, 354, 3645; Robert P. Sharkey Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959), 512. For a recollection of the impact of Chase's act on the corner, see (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959), 512. For a recollection of the impact of Chase's act on the corner, see NYTr NYTr, August 5, 1876.93 NYH NYH, April 30, May 15, June 3, 1864; NYT NYT, May 5, 12, 18, 1864. See also the reminiscences of a Wall Street insider, NYTr NYTr, August 5, 1876. Lane, 1968, repeats Clews's fanciful version, complete with dialogue that may be regarded as fiction. Medbery 15960, gives an excellent description of the workings of a corner, explicitly citing this one as an example.94 Lane, 1989; Lane, 1989; NYT NYT, April 22, 23, May 18, 1864; NYH NYH, April 30, 1864; Fowler, 3556. It will be noted that I am relying more freely on Fowler, even though, like Clews, his version of events necessarily relied on rumor. Fowler wrote much sooner after the events quoted, and was generally far more reliable than Clews. Still, I give credence to his account only when he offers personal information or is confirmed by other sources.95 Clews, 116. Clews, 116.96 Directors' Minutes, May 17, 18, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, May 17, 18, 1864, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR.97 Directors' Minutes, June 13, 14, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 247; Executive Committee Minutes, June 14, July 6, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 249; all NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, June 13, 14, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 247; Executive Committee Minutes, June 14, July 6, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 249; all NYCRR.98 CT CT, July 20, 1864; United States Service Magazine United States Service Magazine, August 1864. On July 1, Congress ceased to pay CV for mail service to California; SED 44, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 1.99 NYH NYH, May 2, 1878; Smith, 17885.100 NYT NYT, July 9, 1865, June 26, 1866; CT CT, August 12, 1866; Smith, 180.101 CT CT, September 6, 1860, September 23, 1866; PS PS, August 11, 1864; NYT NYT, July 9, 1865; Smith, 183. Lane, 199, and Medbery, 1634, claim that Morrissey went against CV in the second Harlem corner; Fowler, 355, says the opposite. Fowler seems more likely to be right. NYT NYT, July 9, 1865, reports that the Saratoga track, with CV as a key backer, was in operation with Morrissey as a manager in 1864, hinting that Morrissey's attempt to ingratiate himself with CV dated to the aftermath of the first Harlem corner.102 NYS NYS, December 22, 1877.103 HG to Hanson A. Risley February 16, March 27, 1864, Hanson A. Risley Papers, Duke. HG to Hanson A. Risley February 16, March 27, 1864, Hanson A. Risley Papers, Duke.104 CJV to HG, September 7, 1864, reel 2, HGP. CJV to HG, September 7, 1864, reel 2, HGP.105 HG to Abraham Lincoln, September 21, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC. HG was correct that CV was a leading purchaser of federal bonds; see, for example, a report of his purchase of $300,000 in 520 bonds in early 1865, HED 52, 39th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 8. HG to Abraham Lincoln, September 21, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC. HG was correct that CV was a leading purchaser of federal bonds; see, for example, a report of his purchase of $300,000 in 520 bonds in early 1865, HED 52, 39th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 8.106 HG to William P. Fessenden, October 4, 1864, HG, E. D. Morgan et al. to William P. Fessenden, October 10, 1864, HG to William P. Fessenden, December 1, 1864, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS; HG to Hanson A. Risley October 12, Hanson A. Risley Papers, Duke. HG to William P. Fessenden, October 4, 1864, HG, E. D. Morgan et al. to William P. Fessenden, October 10, 1864, HG to William P. Fessenden, December 1, 1864, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, NYHS; HG to Hanson A. Risley October 12, Hanson A. Risley Papers, Duke.107 HG to Abraham Lincoln, November 23, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC. HG to Abraham Lincoln, November 23, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers, LOC.108 Directors' Minutes, September 6, October 4, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 247, NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, September 6, October 4, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 247, NYCRR.109 Medbery 1612, gives a story circulating in Wall Street in 1870 that CV had tested WHV by trying to trick him into short-selling Hudson River stock at a time when he was planning to drive the price up; WHV, however, saw through the ploy, and purchased Hudson River instead. Though Lane tells the tale as well, it was simply one more rumor circulating around CV There is no good evidence that he tried to undercut his son, on whom he increasingly relied. Medbery 1612, gives a story circulating in Wall Street in 1870 that CV had tested WHV by trying to trick him into short-selling Hudson River stock at a time when he was planning to drive the price up; WHV, however, saw through the ploy, and purchased Hudson River instead. Though Lane tells the tale as well, it was simply one more rumor circulating around CV There is no good evidence that he tried to undercut his son, on whom he increasingly relied.

Fifteen The Power to Punish The Power to Punish 1 W. L. Garrison to Wife, September 5, 1864, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library. W. L. Garrison to Wife, September 5, 1864, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library.2 NAR NAR, April 1867; Foner, 462; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 3, 9. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 3, 9.3 William Cronon, William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 2393; Edward Chase Kirkland, (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 2393; Edward Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 496; George Rogers Taylor and Irene D. Neu, The American Railroad Network, 18611890 The American Railroad Network, 18611890 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 57, 6775; Maury Klein, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 57, 6775; Maury Klein, Unfinished Business: The Railroad in American Life Unfinished Business: The Railroad in American Life (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1994), 916; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1994), 916; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 91. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 91.4 Sven Beckert, Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York; Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1459; Chandler, (New York; Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1459; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 8194; Chandler, The Railroads The Railroads, 43; Foner, 20, 461; NYSAD 114, 90th sess., February 20, 1867. For bank reports, see BM BM throughout this period. throughout this period.5 Annual Report, February 11, 1865, HR Annual Reports, oversize vol. 241, NYCRR; Thomas C. Cochran, Annual Report, February 11, 1865, HR Annual Reports, oversize vol. 241, NYCRR; Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action Railroad Leaders, 18451890: The Business Mind in Action (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 634, 83, 846, 4745; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., "The Railroads: Pioneers in Modern Corporate Management," (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965, orig. pub. 1953), 634, 83, 846, 4745; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., "The Railroads: Pioneers in Modern Corporate Management," BHR BHR 39, no. 1 (spring 1965): 1640; Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, ed., 39, no. 1 (spring 1965): 1640; Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, ed., The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12762; Chandler, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12762; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 94121.6 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For an example of CVs guidance to his distant agents during his steamship years, see CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For an example of CVs guidance to his distant agents during his steamship years, see CV to John T. Wright and William S. Freeman, October 19, 1859, CV-NYHS.7 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; LW Dictation. For examples of CVs scrutiny and direction, see J. C. Buckhout to CV May 23, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; LW Dictation. For examples of CVs scrutiny and direction, see J. C. Buckhout to CV May 23, 1864, Engineer's Office Letterbook, HRR, 1864, box 19, NYCRR; RT RT, September 30, 1865.8 Railroad track nationwide grew by less than a thousand miles per year during the war; the rate of construction would more than double within twelve months of Appomattox. Chandler, Railroad track nationwide grew by less than a thousand miles per year during the war; the rate of construction would more than double within twelve months of Appomattox. Chandler, The Railroads The Railroads, 13, 43; Executive Committee Minutes, February 16, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 249, Directors' Minutes, February 7, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Edward Hungerford, Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1938), 1968. In Missouri, among other states, local counties issued bonds to fund local railroads, which often went bankrupt and were absorbed by larger lines; T. J. Stiles, (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1938), 1968. In Missouri, among other states, local counties issued bonds to fund local railroads, which often went bankrupt and were absorbed by larger lines; T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 2309. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 2309.9 Beckert, 1367, 148; James A. Ward, Beckert, 1367, 148; James A. Ward, J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 936; Chandler, (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 936; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 904, 105.10 Executive Committee Minutes, February 16, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Executive Committee Minutes, February 16, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.11 MM MM, January 1865.12 NYT NYT, December 9, 1864.13 Strong, 3:409, 565. Strong, 3:409, 565.14 Henry Clews, Henry Clews, Fifty Years in Wall Street Fifty Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 37, 110. For an example of how this mistaken notion that CV hated trains has taken hold in popular thinking, see John Steele Gordon, (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 37, 110. For an example of how this mistaken notion that CV hated trains has taken hold in popular thinking, see John Steele Gordon, An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 212. (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 212.15 Cochran, 1789; John V. L. Pruyn Journal, April 2830, 1864, box 2, John V. L. Pruyn Papers, NYSL (to be referred to hereafter as "Pruyn Journal"). Cochran, 1789; John V. L. Pruyn Journal, April 2830, 1864, box 2, John V. L. Pruyn Papers, NYSL (to be referred to hereafter as "Pruyn Journal").16 NYT NYT, August 28, 1866; CT CT, August 30, 1866; Pruyn Journal, November 10, 1864; Directors' Minutes, August 29, 1866, NYC, vol. 4, box 34, NYCRR; Cochran, 1789; Hungerford, 1934. For examples of EC's need for transcriptions of Richmond's letters, see fold. 5, box 38, ECP.17 Stiles, 1412. For insight into the trunk line diplomacy that would ensue in 1865, see Dean Richmond to J. Edgar Thomson, June 22, 1865, J. Edgar Thomson to Dean Richmond, September 15, 1865, J. Edgar Thomson to Samuel J. Tilden, August 13, 1865, fold. 3, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL. Stiles, 1412. For insight into the trunk line diplomacy that would ensue in 1865, see Dean Richmond to J. Edgar Thomson, June 22, 1865, J. Edgar Thomson to Dean Richmond, September 15, 1865, J. Edgar Thomson to Samuel J. Tilden, August 13, 1865, fold. 3, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL.18 Another factor in their relationship was the railroads' co-ownership of the Albany bridge, which required a further infusion of $400,000 for completion; Pruyn Journal, November 10, 1864, December 12, 1866; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Directors' Minutes, February 7, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR. For more evidence of JHB's role as CV's messenger at this time, see CV to Edwin D. Morgan, February 7, 1865, CV to Edwin D. Morgan, June 4, 1866, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL. Another factor in their relationship was the railroads' co-ownership of the Albany bridge, which required a further infusion of $400,000 for completion; Pruyn Journal, November 10, 1864, December 12, 1866; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Directors' Minutes, February 7, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR. For more evidence of JHB's role as CV's messenger at this time, see CV to Edwin D. Morgan, February 7, 1865, CV to Edwin D. Morgan, June 4, 1866, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL.19 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.20 Ibid. The fast steamboats of the People's Line remained reasonably competitive in terms of speed with the HR passenger trains, which averaged twenty-five to thirty miles per hour, including stops; see HR Annual Reports, oversize vol. 241, NYCRR. Ibid. The fast steamboats of the People's Line remained reasonably competitive in terms of speed with the HR passenger trains, which averaged twenty-five to thirty miles per hour, including stops; see HR Annual Reports, oversize vol. 241, NYCRR.21 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.22 Ibid.; Chauncey M. Depew, Ibid.; Chauncey M. Depew, My Memories of Eighty Years My Memories of Eighty Years (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 37. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 37.23 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 186. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 186.24 NYT NYT, February 10, 1865.25 McPherson, 83840, 8456. McPherson, 83840, 8456.26 Strong, 3:5735. Strong, 3:5735.27 McPherson, 8479; Philip H. Sheridan, McPherson, 8479; Philip H. Sheridan, Personal Memoirs of P. H Sheridan Personal Memoirs of P. H Sheridan, vol. 2 (New York: C. L. Webster, 1888), 1957; John B. Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War Reminiscences of the Civil War (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904), 441. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904), 441.28 Pruyn Journal, April 15, 18, 1865; McPherson, 853. Pruyn Journal, April 15, 18, 1865; McPherson, 853.29 McPherson, 854. McPherson, 854.30 McPherson, 853. As McPherson also notes, 4849, disease was far more deadly to soldiers than enemy weaponry. On the social response to the war, see David W. Blight, McPherson, 853. As McPherson also notes, 4849, disease was far more deadly to soldiers than enemy weaponry. On the social response to the war, see David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); and Drew Gilpin Faust, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); and Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008). (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008).31 Strong, 4:25; Strong, 4:25; NYTr NYTr, September 25, 1878; Faust, 1805; Anne Braude, Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 26. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 26.32 NYTr NYTr, October 16, 24, 1878; NYS NYS, November 14, 1877.33 Directors' Minutes, June 6, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, June 6, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR.34 Directors' Minutes, June 12, 13, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, Executive Committee Minutes, December 8, 1865, May 5, 1866, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, June 12, 13, 1865, HR, oversize vol. 248, Executive Committee Minutes, December 8, 1865, May 5, 1866, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; RT RT, August 19, 1865. See also Directors' Minutes, December 6, 1864, HR, oversize vol. 247, NYCRR, and HW HW, August 12, 1865.35 Directors' Minutes, April 26, 1865, Michigan Southern and Northern Indiana Railroad Company, reel 67, box 243, NYCRR; Medbery 1767; Fowler, 176, 25660. CV reportedly held $7 million in Erie bonds; Directors' Minutes, April 26, 1865, Michigan Southern and Northern Indiana Railroad Company, reel 67, box 243, NYCRR; Medbery 1767; Fowler, 176, 25660. CV reportedly held $7 million in Erie bonds; CT CT, January 10, 1865.36 Pruyn Journal, June 19, 20, 21, 1865. Pruyn Journal, June 19, 20, 21, 1865.37 NYH NYH, August 23, 1865; Hungerford, 196; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.38 Lib to Cornele, n.d., Family Record, WFP. Lib to Cornele, n.d., Family Record, WFP.39 CV to Oliver E. Williams, September 2, 1865, WFP. CV to Oliver E. Williams, September 2, 1865, WFP.40 PS PS, October 26, 1865; NYS NYS, December 19, 1877. Harlem Lane later became St. Nicholas Avenue; NYT NYT, October 2, 1872.41 NYH NYH, November 21, 1865; Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, May 1868. Apart from a horse named Commodore Vanderbilt, there was no sign that CV attended these events.42 NYTr NYTr, February 6, 1879; John Y Simon, ed., The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, vol. 16 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1988), 7980. WHV had already met Grant, having escorted him in a Harlem Railroad train to Albany in July, and was an admirer of the general; NYT NYT, July 6, 1865.43 Round Table Round Table, November 25, 1865; NYT NYT, September 7, 1871; Francis Gerry Fairfield, The Clubs of New York The Clubs of New York (New York: Henry L. Hinton, 1873), 13843; (New York: Henry L. Hinton, 1873), 13843; HW HW, July 11, 1868.44 Fairfield, 13843; LW Dictation. CV resigned from the New York Yacht Club on February 13, 1850; Book of Minutes, box 1: July 30, 1844, to March 18, 1891, New York Yacht Club Library and Archives. Fairfield, 13843; LW Dictation. CV resigned from the New York Yacht Club on February 13, 1850; Book of Minutes, box 1: July 30, 1844, to March 18, 1891, New York Yacht Club Library and Archives.45 NYTr NYTr, February 26, December 5, 1867; New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, November 23, 1865; Depew, 145.46 NYH NYH, December 14, 1866. In January 1867, Henry Keep would testify, "We suppose that Mr. Vanderbilt has managed the NY. Central for the last two years, through men in his interest." See NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Keep was wrong, but the quote demonstrates how Banker was perceived.47 NYS NYS, December 22, 1877.48 NYS NYS, December 19, 27, 1877, March 13, 1878, NYTr NYTr, March 6, 1878.49 CJV to HG, February 26, n.d., reel 3, HGP This letter, though dated without a year, was written from Litchfield, Conn.; as will be seen, CJV went into the asylum in Litchfield in December 1865, showing that this letter must have been written in 1866. CJV to HG, February 26, n.d., reel 3, HGP This letter, though dated without a year, was written from Litchfield, Conn.; as will be seen, CJV went into the asylum in Litchfield in December 1865, showing that this letter must have been written in 1866.50 NYS NYS, December 27, 1877; NYW NYW, December 22, 1877.51 NYS NYS, December 27, 1877; CJV to HG, February 26, n.d., reel 3, HGP.52 NYS NYS, December 27, 1877; Henry S. Thatcher and George Buckland v. CJV Henry S. Thatcher and George Buckland v. CJV, April 2, 1867, LJ-1867-V-192, Supreme Court Law Judgments, NYCC.53 NYS NYS, December 19, 1877.54 CJV to HG, February 26, n.d., reel 3, HGP. CJV to HG, February 26, n.d., reel 3, HGP.55 HW HW, March 17, 1866; SA SA, July 6, 1867.56 NYT NYT, January 25, 1866; Commercial and Financial Chronicle Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 27, 1866.57 Smith, 119; RGD, NYC 374:1. Smith, 119; RGD, NYC 374:1.58 NYT NYT, March 19, 1866; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.59 RT RT, August 3, 1867.60 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.61 Strong, 4:77; McKay, 2189; Beckert, 173; Burrows & Wallace, 9868. Strong, 4:77; McKay, 2189; Beckert, 173; Burrows & Wallace, 9868.62 Directors' Minutes, June 25, 1866, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. At the annual election on May 15, CV personally voted 60,647 of the 75,560 shares represented. Tobin voted 31,500, and WHV 10,600. Directors' Minutes, June 25, 1866, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. At the annual election on May 15, CV personally voted 60,647 of the 75,560 shares represented. Tobin voted 31,500, and WHV 10,600.63 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.64 NYH NYH, January 20, 1869; SED 46, 39th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 2.65 HW HW, January 6, September 15, 1866; Nation Nation, June 5, 1866.66 NYH NYH, May 30, June 1, 1866; NYT NYT, May 29, 30, June 4, 1866; American Law Review American Law Review, October 1868; Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C. Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr, Jay Gould, and William Skidmore Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C. Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr, Jay Gould, and William Skidmore, July 24, 1868, file PL-1868-W-25, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC; CFA "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869. On the law that created the additional shares, see RT RT, May 7, 1864.67 CT CT, January 10, 1865.68 JMD to EC, June 1, 1866, fold. 5, box 88, ECP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. JMD to EC, June 1, 1866, fold. 5, box 88, ECP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.69 Buffalo Freight Convention Buffalo Freight Convention, May 2, 1866, Proceedings of the Railway Meeting Held at the St. Nicholas Hotel, New York, May 22d and 23d, 1866, called by the Vice President of the Erie Railway Company, in pursuance of a resolution passed at Buffalo, May 2d, 1866 Proceedings of the Railway Meeting Held at the St. Nicholas Hotel, New York, May 22d and 23d, 1866, called by the Vice President of the Erie Railway Company, in pursuance of a resolution passed at Buffalo, May 2d, 1866, Erie Railway Company Collection, Baker Library, Harvard Business School; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 123. Chandler, it should be noted, wrote generally of the cartels the railroads repeatedly formed over this period.70 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.71 This conversation is taken from HFC's testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. This conversation is taken from HFC's testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.72 Testimony of HFC, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. After taking over as president of the Central in 1864, Richmond had pushed to include more Republicans in the Central board, to improve the chances of convincing the Republican-dominated legislature to increase the legal limit on passenger fares. That bill failed. Pruyn protested the move as tending to bring politics into the railroad's management; Pruyn Journal, November 10, 1864. Testimony of HFC, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. After taking over as president of the Central in 1864, Richmond had pushed to include more Republicans in the Central board, to improve the chances of convincing the Republican-dominated legislature to increase the legal limit on passenger fares. That bill failed. Pruyn protested the move as tending to bring politics into the railroad's management; Pruyn Journal, November 10, 1864.73 HFC and CV testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. On the proposed consolidation or lease, see also HFC and CV testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. On the proposed consolidation or lease, see also NYTr NYTr, July 26, 1866; NYH NYH, December 14, 1866.74 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. On the proposed consolidation or lease, see also NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. On the proposed consolidation or lease, see also NYTr NYTr, July 26, 1866; NYH NYH, December 14, 1866.75 CT CT, October 14, 1866; RT RT, July 13, August 3, 1867.76 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.77 NYTr NYTr, August 11, 1866.78 NYH NYH, July 1, 1865, May 30, 1866.79 BE BE, July 17, 1866; CT CT, October 24, 1867.80 Fowler, 2423. Fowler, 2423.81 NYH NYH, December 14, 1866; HW HW, January 11, 1868; JMD to EC, June 18, 1866, fold. 5, JMD to EC, June 19, 1866, fold. 3, box 88, ECP; Stiles, 24951. See also NYH NYH, July 15, 1865; Pruyn Journal, December 12, 1866.82 EP EP, July 31, in CT CT, August 3, 1869; Fowler, 2556; HW HW, January 11, 1868. For more background on Keep's campaigns, see Edmund Clarence Stedman, ed., The New York Stock Exchange The New York Stock Exchange (New York: Stock Exchange Historical Company, 1905), 1904. (New York: Stock Exchange Historical Company, 1905), 1904.83 G. C. Davidson to EC, July 1866?, fold. 3, box 88, ECP. G. C. Davidson to EC, July 1866?, fold. 3, box 88, ECP.84 NYT NYT, December 19, 1866, would note that Keep returned from England "with his coat-pockets full of London proxies."85 NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.86 NYT NYT, August 28, 1866; NYTr NYTr, in CT CT, August 30, 1866; Directors' Minutes, August 29, 1866, NYC, vol. 4, box 34, NYCRR.87 BE BE, November 19, 1866; Directors' Minutes, September 27, 1866, NYC, vol. 4, box 34, and Executive Committee Minutes, September 22, 1866, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; CT CT, October 14, 1866; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.88 See the testimony of the parties cited in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. The information and quotes that follow are taken from the same source, until otherwise noted. See the testimony of the parties cited in NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. The information and quotes that follow are taken from the same source, until otherwise noted.89 All of the foregoing is from NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. All of the foregoing is from NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.90 NYT NYT, December 19, 1866.91 Testimony of Testimony of CV CV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.92 "Dinner to the President of the United States, in Honor of His Visit to the City of New York, August 29, 1866, at Delmonico's, Fifth Avenue and Fourteenth Street," fold. 4, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL; Foner, 2645. For an attack on the capitalists (including "the Vanderbilts") for their tribute to Johnson, see "Dinner to the President of the United States, in Honor of His Visit to the City of New York, August 29, 1866, at Delmonico's, Fifth Avenue and Fourteenth Street," fold. 4, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL; Foner, 2645. For an attack on the capitalists (including "the Vanderbilts") for their tribute to Johnson, see NYT NYT, September 7, 1866.93 Foner, 24351. Foner, 24351.94 Foner, 235; Foner, 235; HW HW, September 15, 1866. Given that this is a biography, and not a study of economic ideology, I am restricted to a schematic discussion. Given the enormous changes of this era, both political parties lost much of the cohesion in their economic views, leading to complexities to which I cannot do justice here.95 NYT NYT, October 7, 1866; Strong, 4:1089; NYT NYT, October 13, 1866; Directors' Minutes, May 13, 1859, NYC, vol. 2, box 33, NYCRR.96 Boston Journal Boston Journal, in BE BE, November 19, 1866; NYH NYH, September 10, 1873; AtlC AtlC, October 21, 1875. I am mixing in these later reports in the belief that they are consistent with the contemporary reporting in the Journal Journal story, reprinted in story, reprinted in BE BE.97 HG to EC, June 8, 1866, fold. 3, box 88, ECP; CV to Edwin D. Morgan, December 28, 1866, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL; HG to EC, June 8, 1866, fold. 3, box 88, ECP; CV to Edwin D. Morgan, December 28, 1866, fold. 2, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL; NYH NYH, October 3, 1869; HW HW, November 23, 1867.98 NYT NYT, December 12, 19, 1866; NYH NYH, December 14, 1866; Directors' Minutes, December 12, 1866, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR.99 Directors' Minutes, December 20, 1866, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; testimony of Robert L. Banks, Henry Keep, WHV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Directors' Minutes, December 20, 1866, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; testimony of Robert L. Banks, Henry Keep, WHV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.100 The conversation is from CVs testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For CVs remarks on Corning and Keep, see JMD to EC, February 1, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP. The conversation is from CVs testimony, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For CVs remarks on Corning and Keep, see JMD to EC, February 1, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP.101 Testimony of WHV and HFC, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Testimony of WHV and HFC, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.102 Testimony of WHV, CV and AS, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Testimony of WHV, CV and AS, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.103 Testimony of AS and CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Testimony of AS and CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.104 Directors' Minutes, January 14, 1867, HR, oversize vol. 248, Directors' Minutes, January 14, 1867, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; testimony of WHV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. See also Directors' Minutes, January 14, 1867, HR, oversize vol. 248, Directors' Minutes, January 14, 1867, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR; testimony of WHV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. See also NYH NYH, January 15, 1867.105 Testimony of CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Testimony of CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal, January 18, 1867; NYT NYT, January 19, 1867; NYH NYH, January 18, 19, 20, 1867. For the impact of the blockade on the Central's business, see also the testimony of Harlow W. Chittenden, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. The Central attempted to send through freight by a roundabout route, using the Housatonic Railroad, but experienced great difficulties arranging it.106 BE BE, January 21, 1867; NYH NYH, January 17, 19, 1867.107 Testimony of CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Testimony of CV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.108 NYT NYT, January 23, 1867; NYT NYT, January 23, 1867.109 Henry Keep to EC, January 17, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP; Directors' Minutes, January 17, 1867, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR; testimony of H. Henry Baxter, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Henry Keep to EC, January 17, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP; Directors' Minutes, January 17, 1867, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR; testimony of H. Henry Baxter, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.110 Testimony of WHV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. Testimony of WHV NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.111 Testimony of Henry Keep, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; JMD to EC, January 24, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP. See al Testimony of Henry Keep, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; JMD to EC, January 24, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP. See also NYT, January 25, 1867.112 JMD to EC, January 25, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP. JMD to EC, January 25, 1867, fold. 3, box 89, ECP.

Sixteen Among Friends Among Friends 1 For a reference to CV as "the Railroad King of New York," see For a reference to CV as "the Railroad King of New York," see CT CT, December 16, 1867. For references to "railroad kings" in a general sense, see Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal, January 21, 1867.2 See, for example, CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," See, for example, CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 149. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 149.3 Keep delegated to EC authority to manage relations with CV-for example, to equalize sleeping-car income with the HR, "and make such other arrangements" as might be in the interests of the company; Directors' Minutes, February 15, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR. Keep delegated to EC authority to manage relations with CV-for example, to equalize sleeping-car income with the HR, "and make such other arrangements" as might be in the interests of the company; Directors' Minutes, February 15, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR.4 WHV to JFJ, April 30, 1867, box 3, JFJP-2. WHV to JFJ, April 30, 1867, box 3, JFJP-2.5 NYT NYT, June 29, August 7, 1867; RT RT, July 13, 1867; Directors' Minutes, July 25, August 22, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; Erastus Corning Jr. to EC, July 27, 1867, fold. 2, box 89, ECP.6 Flag of Our Union Flag of Our Union, June 22, 1867.7 Testimony of HFC, NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Testimony of HFC, NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; NYT NYT, April 4, 1867; Proceedings of the Stockholders' Meeting, March 30, 1867, Directors' Minutes, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR.8 CFA, "The Railroad System," in CFA and Henry Adams, CFA, "The Railroad System," in CFA and Henry Adams, Chapters of Erie and Other Essays Chapters of Erie and Other Essays (New York: Henry Holt, 1871), 403. (New York: Henry Holt, 1871), 403.9 Recent historical and popular literature does a poor job of explaining why stock watering was considered such an abuse in the nineteenth century. (Of course, I simply may not have read widely enough.) For example, John Steele Gordon, Recent historical and popular literature does a poor job of explaining why stock watering was considered such an abuse in the nineteenth century. (Of course, I simply may not have read widely enough.) For example, John Steele Gordon, The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988), 87, writes that it was seen as "cheating the stockholders by diluting their equity," which misses the real complaint, and does not touch the underlying thinking that made it such a politically sensitive subject. See CFA, "The Railroad System," 398413. For an enlightening discussion between CVs executives and state legislators on the problem of "fictitious capital," see NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869. Stock watering was a focus of the famous Hepburn Committee, NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880. For a contemporary attack on the "great evil" of "fictitious capital," see (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988), 87, writes that it was seen as "cheating the stockholders by diluting their equity," which misses the real complaint, and does not touch the underlying thinking that made it such a politically sensitive subject. See CFA, "The Railroad System," 398413. For an enlightening discussion between CVs executives and state legislators on the problem of "fictitious capital," see NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869. Stock watering was a focus of the famous Hepburn Committee, NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880. For a contemporary attack on the "great evil" of "fictitious capital," see BM BM, August 1869. See also Montgomery Rollins, "Convertible Bonds and Stocks," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 35, no. 3 (May 1910): 97110. Fowler, 245, is especially good at expressing the wonder his contemporaries felt for the abstraction of corporate finance. 35, no. 3 (May 1910): 97110. Fowler, 245, is especially good at expressing the wonder his contemporaries felt for the abstraction of corporate finance.10 HC HC, March 18, 1867; NYT NYT, April 4, 1867.11 Spuyten Duyvil & Port Morris Railroad Company Minutes Book, vol. 1, box 39, NYCRR; Spuyten Duyvil & Port Morris Railroad Company Minutes Book, vol. 1, box 39, NYCRR; NYT NYT, April 21, 1870. When Daniel Drew had operated the Upper Bull's Head Tavern on Third Avenue, it had been the primary north-south route to the city; see Walter Blair v. Daniel Drew Walter Blair v. Daniel Drew, March 10, 1831, Court of Common Pleas, file 183187, and Fitz G. Halleck v. Daniel Drew Fitz G. Halleck v. Daniel Drew, March 15, 1820, Court of Common Pleas, file 1820479, NYCC.12 RT RT, July 13, 1867; NYT NYT, May 20, August 29, September 11, 1867; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR. On the Great Western's third rail (it had been built to a gauge of 56") and the creation of a through line on the North Shore, see Directors' Minutes, November 8, 1866, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; CT CT, January 9, 1867.13 Nathaniel Thayer to EC, November 26, 1867, fold. 8, box 39, JMD to EC, December 7, 1867, fold. 2, box 90, ECP; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR. On Joy, see Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury, "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, Nathaniel Thayer to EC, November 26, 1867, fold. 8, box 39, JMD to EC, December 7, 1867, fold. 2, box 90, ECP; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR. On Joy, see Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury, "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 152; Julius Grodinsky, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 152; Julius Grodinsky, Transcontinental Railway Strategy, 18691893: A Study of Businesmen Transcontinental Railway Strategy, 18691893: A Study of Businesmen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), 56. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), 56.14 WHV to JFJ, January 29, 1868, JFJP See also WHV to JFJ, May 14, 1868; Memorandum of Agreement, December 17, 1868; and H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874; all in JFJP; Notice of NYC&HR, October 1, 1874, Document Summary, box 5, JFJP-2. WHV used back channels to reassure Joy as well, speaking to Samuel Sloan of the Vanderbilts' desire to treat the North Shore lines fairly; Samuel Sloan to JFJ, August 30, 1867, JFJP. WHV to JFJ, January 29, 1868, JFJP See also WHV to JFJ, May 14, 1868; Memorandum of Agreement, December 17, 1868; and H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874; all in JFJP; Notice of NYC&HR, October 1, 1874, Document Summary, box 5, JFJP-2. WHV used back channels to reassure Joy as well, speaking to Samuel Sloan of the Vanderbilts' desire to treat the North Shore lines fairly; Samuel Sloan to JFJ, August 30, 1867, JFJP.15 RGD, NYC 374:1; RGD, NYC 374:1; Buffalo Express Buffalo Express, in CT CT, December 16, 1867; NYT NYT, October 15, 1866; testimony of CV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For high praise for his Harlem management, from a very skeptical source, see the Nation Nation, March 26, 1868. See also praise from the RT RT, September 30, 1865, for CVs emphasis on safety.16 Testimony of Azariah Boody and CV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Testimony of Azariah Boody and CV, NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867; Putnam's Monthly Magazine Putnam's Monthly Magazine, February 1868. For a splendid illustration of corruption in the Pennsylvania, see David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 5963. (New York: Penguin, 2006), 5963.17 American Phrenological Journal American Phrenological Journal, March 1866; NYT NYT, February 7, 1867; Round Table Round Table, February 9, 1867.18 NYT NYT, November 10, 1866.19 HW HW, December 15, 1866; Cleveland Leader Cleveland Leader, January 21, 1867.20 Round Table Round Table, February 9, 1867.21 NYH NYH, November 14, 1867.22 Louis Auchincloss, Louis Auchincloss, The Vanderbilt Era: Profiles of a Gilded Age The Vanderbilt Era: Profiles of a Gilded Age (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989), 37; (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989), 37; The Way Bill The Way Bill, March 1887.23 Auchincloss, 38; Auchincloss, 38; CT CT, February 3, 1867; Directors' Minutes, May 23, 1867, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR.24 NYS NYS, December 22, 1877, February 27, 1878; NYW NYW, December 20, 1877; NYTr NYTr, February 27, 1868, February 6, 1879; Henry S. Thatcher and George Buckland v. CJV Henry S. Thatcher and George Buckland v. CJV, April 2, 1867, file LJ.-1867-V-192, George R. Pecker v. CJV George R. Pecker v. CJV, April 2, 1867, file L. J-1867-V-100, Supreme Court Law Judgments, NYCC.25 New York Ledger New York Ledger in in CT CT, November 19, 1867; CJV to HG, September 28 n.d., reel 3, HGP.26 CJV to Nathaniel P. Banks, October 27, 1867, cont. 40, Nathaniel P. Banks Papers, LOC. CJV to Nathaniel P. Banks, October 27, 1867, cont. 40, Nathaniel P. Banks Papers, LOC.27 Letter quoted in Letter quoted in NYS NYS, December 27, 1877.28 SEP SEP, April 4, 1873.29 NYT NYT, April 27, 1867; New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, May 16, 1867; NYH NYH, May 22, 1867; H W H W, June 1, 1867; NYTr NYTr, January 24, 1876.30 NYT NYT, October 1, 8, 1867.31 CT CT, October 18, 24, 1867; NYT NYT, October 19, 22, 1867.32 New York Ledger New York Ledger, in CT CT, November 19, 1867.33 For the original complaint, see For the original complaint, see Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr., Jay Gould, and William Skidmore Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr., Jay Gould, and William Skidmore, July 24, 1868, file PL-1868-W-25, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC. The account given here of the complaint and CVs interaction with Jay Gould, to follow, comes from an overlooked deposition later filed by Gould; CT CT, March 30, 1868. For an influential source that calls Work CVs nephew, see CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869. Work himself made no claim to any relation to CV; see his testimony in the will trial, NYS NYS, March 7, 1878. On Samuel Barton's role in the HR, see Directors' Minutes, June 10, 1867, HR, oversize vol. 248, NYCRR. For his partnership with Work, see a notice in NYT NYT, February 19, 1866. For evidence that CV specially favored Barton, see CV to Samuel L. M. Barlow, March 6, 1860, BW Box 36 (14), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL.34 CT CT, March 30, 1868. According to Gould's lieutenant and bodyguard, G. P. Morosini, Gould joined the Eldridge clique through contact with lawyer Frederick A. Lane and broker James Fisk Jr.; G. P. Morosini, "Jay Gould and the Erie Railway," NYHS.35 Klein, 77; Edward Harold Mott, Klein, 77; Edward Harold Mott, Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 141. (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 141.36 NYT NYT, December 14, 1865, June 10, 1867; PS PS, August 13, 1868; Edward Chase Kirk-land, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 3440. Kirkland notes that Adams stressed the need for the Boston, Hartford & Erie in his article on Boston for the NAR NAR.37 CT CT, March 30, 1868.38 The discussion of the financial system that follows is largely based on the same sources cited in the discussion of the introduction of the greenback in Chapter Thirteen. See in particular Richard Franklin Bensel, The discussion of the financial system that follows is largely based on the same sources cited in the discussion of the introduction of the greenback in Chapter Thirteen. See in particular Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18651877 Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18651877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 23980, esp. 26477; Richard Sylla, "Federal Policy, Banking Market Structure, and Capital Mobilization in the United States, 18631913," (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 23980, esp. 26477; Richard Sylla, "Federal Policy, Banking Market Structure, and Capital Mobilization in the United States, 18631913," JEH JEH 29, no. 4 (December 1969): 65786; Esther Rogoff Taus, 29, no. 4 (December 1969): 65786; Esther Rogoff Taus, Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 659; and also George A. Selgin and Lawrence H. White, "Monetary Reform and the Redemption of National Bank Notes, 18631913," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 659; and also George A. Selgin and Lawrence H. White, "Monetary Reform and the Redemption of National Bank Notes, 18631913," BHR BHR 68, no. 2 (summer 1994): 20543. 68, no. 2 (summer 1994): 20543.39 EP EP in in CT CT, March 28, 1868; Fowler, 508; Smith, 567; Bensel, 23940, 25474.40 In Gould's affidavit, quoted above, he said CV had told him that "Mr. Drew was bearing stocks, and was mainly instrumental in producing money stringency which took place just previous; that Drew had several millions on deposit, and knowing that Mr. Vanderbilt and his friends were carrying a large amount of stock, never offered assistance;" In Gould's affidavit, quoted above, he said CV had told him that "Mr. Drew was bearing stocks, and was mainly instrumental in producing money stringency which took place just previous; that Drew had several millions on deposit, and knowing that Mr. Vanderbilt and his friends were carrying a large amount of stock, never offered assistance;" CT CT, March 30, 1868.41 Ibid.; Klein, 79. Ibid.; Klein, 79.42 CT CT, March 30, 1868; NYH NYH, October 9, 1867; Klein, 79.43 NYH NYH, October 9, 1867. NYH NYH, October 12, 1867, refers to the operations of "the Erie clique," and the Albany Evening Journal Albany Evening Journal, quoted in CT CT, December 10, 1867, observed the broad upward movement in railroad stocks, including Erie. In Gould's affidavit quoted in CT CT, March 30, 1868, as elsewhere, he names the members of the pool.44 NYH NYH, January 20, 1869; CV to JHB, February 1, 1868, CV-NYHS; SR 307, part 2, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 3, 137.45 NYTr NYTr, August 5, 1876; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, Executive Committee Minutes, December 12, 20, 21, 26, 1867, January 20, February 11, 1868, NYC, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR; Circular Circular, February 10, 1868; NYH NYH, January 20, 1869; JMD to EC, December 28, 1867, fold. 2, box 90, JMD to EC, July 2, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP For a recollection of CVs elimination of sinecures, including EC Jr., see NYTr NYTr, August 5, 1876. For an account of the costs of free passes see RRG RRG, July 6, 1872. The elimination of free passes created some problems; drovers, for example, usually traveled for free with their cattle, and when the Central stopped that practice the Erie captured much of the livestock business temporarily; see S. H. Dubois to EC, March 7, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP. For a useful summary of CVs rationalization of the Central, see Alfred D. Chandler Jr., "The Railroads: Pioneers in Modern Corporate Management," BHR BHR 39, no. 1 (spring 1965): 1640. 39, no. 1 (spring 1965): 1640.46 RT RT, February 8, 1868; NYT NYT, February 9, 1868; SA SA, February 15, 1868.47 BE BE, January 15, 1868; JMD to EC, December 28, 1867, fold. 2, box 90, JMD to EC, July 2, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP.48 John D. Prince to JMD, January 7, 1868, JMD to EC, January 7, 14, 1868, fold. 8, box 39; JMD to EC, January 8, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; John D. Prince to JMD, January 7, 1868, JMD to EC, January 7, 14, 1868, fold. 8, box 39; JMD to EC, January 8, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; NYT NYT, January 11, 1868.49 NYH NYH, January 23, 1868; NYT NYT, December 1, 1868; CT CT, March 30, 1868; S. W. Harned to EC, February 14, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP.50 S. W. Harned to EC, February 14, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869. The stenographer, Hudson C. Tanner, later testified that the assembly committee before whom CV spoke these words suppressed some of his comments (reproduced here) to delete his profanity and generally clean up his comments; S. W. Harned to EC, February 14, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869. The stenographer, Hudson C. Tanner, later testified that the assembly committee before whom CV spoke these words suppressed some of his comments (reproduced here) to delete his profanity and generally clean up his comments; NYTr NYTr, March 6, 1871. Schell is quoted in HR 31, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1.51 Klein, 81; Klein, 81; NYH NYH, February 20, 23, 1868; H. E. Sargent to JFJ, April 8, 1868, Telegram, Document Summary, box 5, JFJP-2. On March 7, a New York Central official reported, "4 out of 6 of the stock cars that comes down the Lake Shore Road [Michigan Southern's eastern connection] goes over the Erie Road in consequence of a nefarious arrangement;" S. H. Dubois to EC, March 7, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP.52 Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C. Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr., Jay Gould, and William Skidmore Frank Work v. Daniel Drew, John E. Eldridge, Alexander Drew, Homer Ramsdell, J. C. Bancroft Davis, Henry Thompson, Dudley Gregory, Frederick A. Lane, George Gravel, James Fisk Jr., Jay Gould, and William Skidmore, July 24, 1868, file PL-1868-W-25, Supreme Court Pleadings, NYCC.53 Strong, 4:263n; Strong, 4:263n; NYTr NYTr, March 25, 1872, in HW HW, April 13, 1872; Zion's Herald Zion's Herald, March 26, 1868. On Tweed, Barnard, and the role of the city's courts, see Seymour Mandelbaum, Boss Tweed's New York Boss Tweed's New York (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 578, 667, 83; Burrows & Wallace, 837. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 578, 667, 83; Burrows & Wallace, 837.54 See the complaint against Barnard by James Fisk's partner, William Belden, See the complaint against Barnard by James Fisk's partner, William Belden, NYH NYH, March 12, 1868. On Barnard's closeness with Osgood, see NYH NYH, March 19, 31, 1868. For some of the many letters from JMD to EC on Barnard and the stock market, see those for December 28, 1867, fold. 2, box 90; February 11, 27, 1868, fold. 8, box 39; August [n.d.], August 23, 1869, fold. 1, box 94; all in ECP. For a timeline of the Erie litigation, see American Law Review American Law Review, October 1868. Barnard actually rebuked Rapallo at one point as he presented the motion to remove Drew; NYT NYT, February 22, 1868.55 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869; Lane, 243.56 NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; NYTr NYTr, March 6, 1871.57 CV to JHB, February 1, 1868, CV-NYHS; CV to Andrew Johnson, February 6, 1868, in Paul H. Bergeron, ed., CV to JHB, February 1, 1868, CV-NYHS; CV to Andrew Johnson, February 6, 1868, in Paul H. Bergeron, ed., The Papers of Andrew Johnson The Papers of Andrew Johnson, vol. 13, September 1867-March 1868 September 1867-March 1868 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 5345; (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 5345; NYT NYT, February 18, 22, 1868; S. H. Dubois to EC, March 7, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP.58 CT CT, March 19, 1868; RT RT, March 21, 1868.59 NYT NYT, March 4, April 24, 1868; NYSSD 52: Report of the Select Committee of the Senate, Appointed April 10, 1868, in Relation to Passage of Certain Railroad Bills Report of the Select Committee of the Senate, Appointed April 10, 1868, in Relation to Passage of Certain Railroad Bills (Albany: Argus Company, 1869), 16, 107; (Albany: Argus Company, 1869), 16, 107; American Law Review American Law Review, October 1868; NYH NYH, April 9, 1868; Klein, 812.60 NYT NYT, February 20, 1868. The wedding description is from the New York Mail New York Mail in in Flake's Bulletin Flake's Bulletin, March 3, 1868.61 HG to Ellen Williams Vanderbilt, March 8, 1868, WFP. HG to Ellen Williams Vanderbilt, March 8, 1868, WFP.62 Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, March 19, 1868, reel 2, HGP. Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, March 19, 1868, reel 2, HGP.63 Ibid. Ibid.64 Circular Circular, February 17, 1868; NYT NYT, February 17, March 17, 1868.65 NYH NYH, March 7, 10, 25, 1868; American Law Review American Law Review, October 1868.66 American Law Review American Law Review, October 1868; NYH NYH, March 12, 15, 25, April 3, 1868; NYT NYT, March 12, 1868; NYSSD 52, 16. Those interested in the fine details of this tangle of legal actions, see John Steele Gordon, The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), 16473. Henry Clews reported the rumors about Vanderbilt forcing banks to lend, in (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), 16473. Henry Clews reported the rumors about Vanderbilt forcing banks to lend, in Fifty Years in Wall Street Fifty Years in Wall Street (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 139, as did Croffut, 91. (New York: Irving Publishing, 1908), 139, as did Croffut, 91.67 NYH NYH, March 14, 15, 21, 1868; CT CT, March 24, 1868. Drew later testified that Field had advised the flight to New Jersey; NYT NYT, November 30, 1869.68 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie." CFA, "A Chapter of Erie."69 HW HW, April 11, 1868.70 NYH NYH, March 15, 1868.71 W. L. Garrison to Wife, May 24, 1871, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library. W. L. Garrison to Wife, May 24, 1871, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library.72 HW HW, October 16, 1869; NYH NYH, March 15, 19, 1868; Klein, 803.73 NYH NYH, March 16, 19, 20, 1868; CT CT, March 24, 25, 1868; Klein, 83.74 NYSSD 52, 11, 50, 1112; NYSSD 52, 11, 50, 1112; NYH NYH, March 21, 25, 1868; Klein, 84.75 Klein, 84. Klein, 84.76 NYSSD 52, 111; NYSSD 52, 111; NYH NYH, April 2, 1868; NYT NYT, April 2, 1868; William Cassidy to Samuel J. Tilden, April 6, 1868, fold. 6, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL.77 NYSSD 52, 911; Klein, 845. NYSSD 52, 911; Klein, 845.78 William Cassidy to Samuel J. Tilden, April 6, 1868, fold. 6, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL; Klein, 83; William Cassidy to Samuel J. Tilden, April 6, 1868, fold. 6, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL; Klein, 83; NYT NYT, November 30, 1869, March 17, 1870.79 CT CT, April 29, 1868; HC HC, November 30, 1869; NYTr NYTr, April 27, 1868, in CT CT, April 30, 1868; NYT NYT, March 17, 18, 1870. Drew testified, as reported in the NYT NYT, November 30, 1869, that he intended to take CVs shares in order "to get control of the Erie Road-get these people out of it."80 NYTr NYTr, April 27, 1868, in CT CT, April 30, 1868; NYT NYT, April 28, 1868.81 The ensuing conversation is largely drawn from Gould and Fisk's testimony, The ensuing conversation is largely drawn from Gould and Fisk's testimony, NYT NYT, March 16, 18, 19, 1870. Gordon, relying on Clews, claims that Fisk burst into CVs bedroom; the account I am citing, given by both Fisk and Gould under oath, shows CV called Fisk in.82 CT CT, January 1, 1873.83 NYT NYT, March 16, 17, 18, 1870.84 Ibid. Ibid.85 NYH NYH, July 11, 1868, November 21, 30, 1869; BE BE, August 25, 1868; NYS NYS, November 28, 1872; Klein, 856. A somewhat different version of this settlement would be laid out in an affidavit by Gould, NYH NYH, December 1, 1868. However, since Gould was suing CV at the time, he oversimplified, and (not having been in on all the negotiations) he made errors. CVs court testimony on November 20, 1869, shows that his deal was technically with Drew, though the Erie paid most of the money; also, CV said he had sold the shares at 80, not 70 as Gould claimed. Drew's testimony, NYT NYT, November 30, 1869, HC HC, November 30, 1869, tends to confirm CVs account. This is important, as will be seen, for CV later claimed that he had not sold his shares to the Erie, a claim that historians have scoffed at; see, for example, Klein, 91.86 RGD, NYC 374:10. As will be discussed later, estimates of CVs wealth can be no better than guesses, often wild ones. RGD, NYC 374:10. As will be discussed later, estimates of CVs wealth can be no better than guesses, often wild ones.87 Foner, 3336. Foner, 3336.88 RT RT, April 25, 1868; HsR 57, 40th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 2.89 Nation Nation, June 25, 1868.90 Round Table Round Table, April 4, 1868; MM MM, April 1868; NYT NYT, April 4, 1868. A fine explanation of the divided public opinion appears in the Nation Nation, March 26, 1868.91 On the writing and importance of this essay (for which Adams was only paid $150), see Edward Chase Kirkland, On the writing and importance of this essay (for which Adams was only paid $150), see Edward Chase Kirkland, Charles Francis Adams, Jr., 18351915: The Patrician at Bay Charles Francis Adams, Jr., 18351915: The Patrician at Bay (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), 401, 77. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), 401, 77.92 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie." For two excellent accounts of the "liberals," as the Adams brothers and their cohorts came to be called, see John G. Sproat, CFA, "A Chapter of Erie." For two excellent accounts of the "liberals," as the Adams brothers and their cohorts came to be called, see John G. Sproat, "The Best Men": Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age "The Best Men": Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), and Thomas K. McGraw, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), and Thomas K. McGraw, Prophets of Regulation: Charles Francis Adams, Louis D. Brandeis, James M. Landis, Alfred E. Kahn Prophets of Regulation: Charles Francis Adams, Louis D. Brandeis, James M. Landis, Alfred E. Kahn (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1984). The liberal reformers will be discussed further later in the text. (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1984). The liberal reformers will be discussed further later in the text.93 Letter to the Letter to the JoC JoC, in NYT NYT, March 6, 1868.94 Mandelbaum, 58; Mandelbaum, 58; Testimony Taken Before the Special Committee of the Assembly... in the Matter of the Erie Railway Investigation Testimony Taken Before the Special Committee of the Assembly... in the Matter of the Erie Railway Investigation (1873), 764, Erie Railway Company Collection, Baker Library, Harvard Business School. For an important article on railroads and corruption, see Richard White, "Information, Markets, and Corruption: Transcontinental Railroads in the Gilded Age," (1873), 764, Erie Railway Company Collection, Baker Library, Harvard Business School. For an important article on railroads and corruption, see Richard White, "Information, Markets, and Corruption: Transcontinental Railroads in the Gilded Age," JEH JEH 90, no. 1 (June 2003): 1943. White's discussion, while perceptive, treats the corruption of financial information as a new phenomenon of the Gilded Age, whereas it arose as early as corporations themselves; this book has shown examples as early as the 1830s. Nor is it generally true that "profit came less from selling goods and services than from financial maneuvering involving the securities of the firms;" CV's railroads paid 8 percent annual dividends on a stock capitalization that eventually amounted to roughly $100 million. The use of shell companies in the transcontinentals, seen in Credit Mobilier, was pioneered by the Pennsylvania Railroad; and, as Mark Wahlgren Summers points out in 90, no. 1 (June 2003): 1943. White's discussion, while perceptive, treats the corruption of financial information as a new phenomenon of the Gilded Age, whereas it arose as early as corporations themselves; this book has shown examples as early as the 1830s. Nor is it generally true that "profit came less from selling goods and services than from financial maneuvering involving the securities of the firms;" CV's railroads paid 8 percent annual dividends on a stock capitalization that eventually amounted to roughly $100 million. The use of shell companies in the transcontinentals, seen in Credit Mobilier, was pioneered by the Pennsylvania Railroad; and, as Mark Wahlgren Summers points out in The Era of Good Stealings The Era of Good Stealings (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 4654, Credit Mobilier provided Union Pacific with a necessary means of financing itself, as Congress unrealistically prohibited it from selling its securities below par. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 4654, Credit Mobilier provided Union Pacific with a necessary means of financing itself, as Congress unrealistically prohibited it from selling its securities below par.95 NYSSD 52, 111. NYSSD 52, 111.96 Francis Gerry Fairfield, Francis Gerry Fairfield, The Clubs of New York The Clubs of New York (New York: Henry L. HINTON, 1873), 13844. It was reported that Tweed and his ally Peter Sweeney were blackballed when they applied to become members of the Manhattan Club; (New York: Henry L. HINTON, 1873), 13844. It was reported that Tweed and his ally Peter Sweeney were blackballed when they applied to become members of the Manhattan Club; NYT NYT, October 16, 1869.97 Summers, 61. My statement of this paradox is to some extent a rephrasing of Summers's own conclusion. For another view of the causes of the diminishing of free-labor ideology, see Sven Beckert, Summers, 61. My statement of this paradox is to some extent a rephrasing of Summers's own conclusion. For another view of the causes of the diminishing of free-labor ideology, see Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1767. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1767.98 HC HC, June 11, 1868.99 Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, June 19, 1868, reel 2, HGP; CJV to George Terry, June 12, 1871, fold. 24, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, June 19, 1868, reel 2, HGP; CJV to George Terry, June 12, 1871, fold. 24, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island100 CV to Andrew Johnson, June 27, 1868, in Paul H. Bergeron, ed., CV to Andrew Johnson, June 27, 1868, in Paul H. Bergeron, ed., The Papers of Andrew Johnson The Papers of Andrew Johnson, vol. 14 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 278, 279n; AtlC AtlC, October 6, 1871; CV v. Jeremiah Simonson CV v. Jeremiah Simonson, August 13, 1868, file L. J. 1858-S-574, Supreme Court Law Judgments, NYCC101 NYT NYT, July 19, August 18, 1868; NYTr NYTr, August 18, 1868; Troy Times Troy Times, August 15, in NYT NYT, August 18, 1868. On Drew's stays at the Union Hotel, see NYT NYT, August 11, 1865.102 NYTr NYTr, August 18, 1868. See also CT CT, August 30, 1868. Previous biographers have written that CV remained in Saratoga until Sophia died; the evidence shows otherwise.103 NYTr NYTr, August 20, 1868.104 1868 Annual Income Tax List, Collection District 6, Division 12, page 249, box 429, New York Tax Assessment Lists, 18671873, RG 58, National Archives, New York, NY. 1868 Annual Income Tax List, Collection District 6, Division 12, page 249, box 429, New York Tax Assessment Lists, 18671873, RG 58, National Archives, New York, NY.105 NYH NYH, March 5, 1879.

Seventeen Consolidations Consolidations 1 CT CT, October 11, 1868.2 SA SA, January 2, 1865.3 Foner, 4602; Joseph Frazier Wall, Foner, 4602; Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 188306. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 188306.4 John D. Rockefeller to Laura S. Rockefeller, April 19, 1868, fold. 270, box 36, RG 1.2, Rockfeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Directors' Minutes, February 11, 1868, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; Ron Chernow, John D. Rockefeller to Laura S. Rockefeller, April 19, 1868, fold. 270, box 36, RG 1.2, Rockfeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Directors' Minutes, February 11, 1868, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR; Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 98115. Chernow dates the letter from Rockefeller cited here as August 19, 1868; I read it differently, but the difference is insignificant. On railroads and the oil business, see Rolland Harper Maybee, Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), esp. 207, 2234, 23846, 2545, 2639, (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), esp. 207, 2234, 23846, 2545, 2639, 28 280.5 John D. Rockefeller to Laura S. Rockefeller, April 19, 1868, fold. 270, box 36, RG 1.2, Rockfeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR. John D. Rockefeller to Laura S. Rockefeller, April 19, 1868, fold. 270, box 36, RG 1.2, Rockfeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y; Directors' Minutes, December 11, 1867, NYC, vol. 5, box 34, NYCRR.6 WHV to JFJ, May 14, 1868; Memorandum of Agreement, December 17, 1868; JFJP; WHV to JFJ, May 14, 1868; Memorandum of Agreement, December 17, 1868; JFJP; CT CT, December 21, 1868.7 Prenuptial Agreement, CV and Frank Armstrong Crawford, August 20, 1869, CV-NYHS. (Martha was sometimes mistakenly called Mary in newspaper accounts.) In the trial over CVs will, the opposing counsel would claim that CV put Frank and Martha up in a house in New York before Sophia's death, and dashed away from her funeral to see them, but he offered no evidence to support this; Prenuptial Agreement, CV and Frank Armstrong Crawford, August 20, 1869, CV-NYHS. (Martha was sometimes mistakenly called Mary in newspaper accounts.) In the trial over CVs will, the opposing counsel would claim that CV put Frank and Martha up in a house in New York before Sophia's death, and dashed away from her funeral to see them, but he offered no evidence to support this; NYTr NYTr, March 30, 1878.8 NYT NYT, May 5, 1885; NYH NYH, August 25, 1869, March 5, 1879; Toronto Christian Guardian Toronto Christian Guardian in in NYT NYT, September 11, 1869.9 CV to Frank Armstrong, October 24, 1868, CV-NYHS. On CVs pride in her Southernness, see Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 26, 1869, CV-NYHS. CV to Frank Armstrong, October 24, 1868, CV-NYHS. On CVs pride in her Southernness, see Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 26, 1869, CV-NYHS.10 NYS NYS, November 27, 1872. CVs comments should not be seen as idiosyncratic. Phrenology remained a mainstream system of reading one's inner state from the surface; and, as John F. Kasson observes in Rudeness & Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Urban America Rudeness & Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Urban America (New York: Hill & Wang, 1990), "Etiquette books express this intense new interest in reading character from appearances." (New York: Hill & Wang, 1990), "Etiquette books express this intense new interest in reading character from appearances."11 NYS NYS, November 28, 1872; testimony of Jay Gould, NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869.12 NYS NYS, November 28, 1872; NYT NYT, March 18, 1870; Klein, 901. On O'Conor, see HW HW, June 1, 1867; 1, 1867; CT CT, February 29, 1868, August 7, 1872. For rumors that CV colluded in the Belmont lawsuit, see CT CT, November 22, 1868.13 NYT NYT, December 1, 1868, March 18, 1870; HC HC, December 7, 1868; Klein, 91.14 NYT NYT, December 7, 1868; CT CT, December 15, 1868; Klein, 91.15 NYTr NYTr, in RT RT, October 10, 1868; J. Edgar Thomson to J. F. Lavien, April 27, 1868, Thomas A. Scott to Samuel J. Tilden, May 4, 1868, fold. 6, box 6, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL; HC HC, December 7, 1868; Klein, 923.16 JMD to EC, January 8, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; JMD to EC, January 8, 1868, fold. 5, box 90, ECP; BE BE, November 30, 1868; NYH NYH, December 3, 5, 22, 1868.17 NYH NYH, January 20, 1869; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Directors' Minutes, December 19, 1868, NYC, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR; Hudson C. Tanner, "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time "The Lobby" and Public Men from Thurlow Weed's Time (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 21823; (Albany: George MacDonald, 1888), 21823; NYS NYS, December 22, 1868, in Flake's Bulletin Flake's Bulletin, December 31, 1868.18 NYH NYH, December 22, 1868, January 20, 1869; NYSAD 114, 90th sess., 1867; NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Directors' Minutes, December 19, 1868, NYC, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR; Tanner, 2167. In yet another lawsuit, Judge Ingraham issued an injunction barring the payment of any dividend on the scrip; Edward Hunger-ford, Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central (New York: Thomas Y. Crow-ell, 1938), 219. (New York: Thomas Y. Crow-ell, 1938), 219.19 John M. Forbes to Green, January 8, 1869, Letterbooks, vol. 5, C. B. & Q. Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. John M. Forbes to Green, January 8, 1869, Letterbooks, vol. 5, C. B. & Q. Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.20 NYS NYS, December 22, 1868, in Flake's Bulletin Flake's Bulletin, December 31, 1868; CT CT, January 21, 1869. In the ultimate pragmatic response, the New York Stock Exchange threw up its hands and allowed trading in the scrip; Minutes for December 21, 22, 1868, February 27, 1869, New York Stock & Exchange Board Minutes: 18671871, New York Stock Exchange Archives.21 NAR NAR, January 1869; Henry V. Poor, Manual of the Railroads of the United States for 186970 Manual of the Railroads of the United States for 186970, quoted in BM BM, August 1869. See also a description of Central dividends as "exorbitant interest on all this manufactured and fictitious capital and cost," in RT RT, June 19, 1869, and RRG RRG, June 4, 1870.22 NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Tanner, 2212. NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Tanner, 2212.23 John Steele Gordon, John Steele Gordon, The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie Railway Wars, and the Birth of Wall Street (New York: Weidenfield & Nicholson, 1988), 224. (New York: Weidenfield & Nicholson, 1988), 224.24 NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Tanner, 21530. NYSAD 142, 92nd sess., 1869; Tanner, 21530.25 NYH NYH, April 9, 27, May 21, 1869.26 Directors' Minutes, June 11, 1869, HR, oversize vol. 248; Directors' Minutes, June 9, 30, 1869, NYC, vol. 3, box 34; all in NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, June 11, 1869, HR, oversize vol. 248; Directors' Minutes, June 9, 30, 1869, NYC, vol. 3, box 34; all in NYCRR; RT RT, June 19, 1869. In Isaac Jenks v. New York Central Isaac Jenks v. New York Central, the lawsuit in which Barnard issued his injunction, Jenks said that a close friend of CVs told him that CV owned (directly and indirectly) 130,000 shares of Central; NYH NYH, January 22, 1869.27 RGD, NYC 364:100Q; RGD, NYC 364:100Q; NYT NYT, March 20, 23, 1870, August 9, 1872; Promissory Note, March 17, 1869, Misc. Papers, Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr., NYPL; NYS NYS, December 20, 1877.28 Executive Committee Minutes, February 1, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; Strong, 4:244; Executive Committee Minutes, February 1, HR, oversize vol. 249, NYCRR; Strong, 4:244; BE BE, April 21, 1869.29 BE BE, May 26, 1869; Smith, 263, 271.30 For my portrait of Woodhull and Claflin, I will rely wherever possible on primary sources. I am informed by Mary Gabriel, For my portrait of Woodhull and Claflin, I will rely wherever possible on primary sources. I am informed by Mary Gabriel, Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Wood-hull, Uncensored Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Wood-hull, Uncensored (Chapel Hill, N.C: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), Louis Beachy Underhill, (Chapel Hill, N.C: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), Louis Beachy Underhill, The Woman Who Ran for President: The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull The Woman Who Ran for President: The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull (Bridgehampton, N.Y: Bridge Works Publishing, 1995), and the essays of Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock, and Conflict over Sex in the United States in the 1870s," (Bridgehampton, N.Y: Bridge Works Publishing, 1995), and the essays of Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock, and Conflict over Sex in the United States in the 1870s," JAH JAH 87, no. 2 (September 2000): 40334, and "A Victory Woodhull for the 1990s," 87, no. 2 (September 2000): 40334, and "A Victory Woodhull for the 1990s," Reviews in American History Reviews in American History 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797. By contrast, Barbara Goldsmith's 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797. By contrast, Barbara Goldsmith's Other Powers: The Age of Suffrage, Spiritualism, and the Scandalous Victoria Woodhull Other Powers: The Age of Suffrage, Spiritualism, and the Scandalous Victoria Woodhull (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), strikes me after close investigation as unreliable. I have consulted some sources cited by other writers (for example, the Victoria Woodhull-Martin Papers at the Boston Public Library) that I will not cite because I found them to contain nothing reliable or useful. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), strikes me after close investigation as unreliable. I have consulted some sources cited by other writers (for example, the Victoria Woodhull-Martin Papers at the Boston Public Library) that I will not cite because I found them to contain nothing reliable or useful.31 NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1878; NYT NYT, February 6, 1870; Anne Braude, Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 23, 1458; Stiles, 32. See also Robert C. Fuller, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 23, 1458; Stiles, 32. See also Robert C. Fuller, Alternative Medicine and American Religious Life Alternative Medicine and American Religious Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).32 NYH NYH, May 16, 17, 1871; NYTr NYTr, May 17, 1871; Horowitz, "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock;" NYH NYH, February 22, 1871. For an example of Tennie's flirting by letter, see Tennie C. Claflin to Whitelaw Reid, February 6, 1870, reel 192, Reid Family Papers, LOC.33 NYS NYS, November 14, 1877; see also NYW NYW, November 14, 1877. I have never seen or found a source for claims by Edward J. Renehan Jr. and Goldsmith that CV drank heavily, chewed tobacco, and spat on his hosts' carpets. Indeed, such tales fly in the face of all evidence, such as the LW Dictation, the diary of Frank Crawford (see next chapter), or various press accounts.34 NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1878.35 NYH NYH, February 24, 1869.36 William Cronon, William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 2393; George H. Miller, (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 2393; George H. Miller, Railroads and the Granger Laws Railroads and the Granger Laws (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971), 616; George Rogers Taylor and Irene D. Neu, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971), 616; George Rogers Taylor and Irene D. Neu, The American Railroad Network, 18611890 The American Railroad Network, 18611890 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 74; Foner, 464. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), 74; Foner, 464.37 Taylor and Neu, 6874; Edward Chase Kirkland, Taylor and Neu, 6874; Edward Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 5013. An excellent history of fast-freight lines and trunk line competition appears in Maybee, 11422, 13135. For a discussion of the forces driving consolidation, see Julius Grodinsky, Railroad Consolidation: Its Economics and Controlling Principles Railroad Consolidation: Its Economics and Controlling Principles (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1930). Curiously, Alfred D. Chandler Jr. confuses fast-freight lines with express companies, in (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1930). Curiously, Alfred D. Chandler Jr. confuses fast-freight lines with express companies, in The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 1278, 129, 145, 153, 210. As noted in (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 1278, 129, 145, 153, 210. As noted in RRG RRG, May 7, 1870, the Michigan Central drew freight from a vast network controlled by Joy, which CV could not ignore.38 Chandler, Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 14851.39 Cincinnati Gazette Cincinnati Gazette in in NYH NYH, February 10, 1869; Klein, 934; Maybee, 1412, 15060, also 51, 10111.40 RRG RRG, May 14, 1870; Articles of Agreement of Consolidation, April 6, 1869, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; Toledo Commercial Toledo Commercial, April 7, 1869, in CT CT, April 9, 1869; First Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company, to the Stockholders, for the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1870 First Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company, to the Stockholders, for the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1870 (Cleveland: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co, 1871), copy in Baker Library, Harvard Business School. (Cleveland: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co, 1871), copy in Baker Library, Harvard Business School.41 NYH NYH, June 2, 1869; RRG RRG, May 14, 1870; Fowler, 221; New World New World, June 18, 1842; BM BM, June 1862, March 1872; HC HC, February 22, 1865; New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, November 21, 1867; Flag of Our Union Flag of Our Union, July 25, 1868; New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, February 29, 1872.42 Directors' Minutes, June 2, 3, 1869, LS&MS, reel 65, box 242, NYCRR. Directors' Minutes, June 2, 3, 1869, LS&MS, reel 65, box 242, NYCRR.43 Cleveland Herald Cleveland Herald, June 22, 1869, in NYT NYT, June 27, 1869; BE BE, July 10, 1869; NYH NYH, July 15, 1869; E. C. Deavan to EC, August 2, 1869, fold. 1, box 94, ECP; NYT NYT, August 11, 1869.44 NYH NYH, August 18, 27, 1869; Running Arrangement and Narrow Gauge Contract between the Erie Railway Company and the LS&MS, August 16, 1869, and Directors' Minutes, LS&MS, August 18, 19, 1869, reel 65, box 242, NYCRR.45 E. C. Deavan to EC, August 19, 1869, fold. 1, box 94, ECP; Prenuptial Agreement, CV and Frank Armstrong Crawford, August 20, 1869, CV-NYHS; E. C. Deavan to EC, August 19, 1869, fold. 1, box 94, ECP; Prenuptial Agreement, CV and Frank Armstrong Crawford, August 20, 1869, CV-NYHS; London Free Press London Free Press, August 23, 1869, in NYT NYT, August 25, 1869; Syracuse Journal Syracuse Journal, August 23, 1869, in NYH NYH, August 25, 1869.46 Marriage Certificate, August 21, 1869, CV-NYHS; McPherson, 5167, 676; Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary 2, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYHS; Marriage Certificate, August 21, 1869, CV-NYHS; McPherson, 5167, 676; Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary 2, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYHS; London Free Press London Free Press, August 23, 1869, in NYT NYT, August 25, 1869; Toronto Christian Guardian Toronto Christian Guardian in in NYT NYT, September 11, 1869.47 London Free Press London Free Press, August 23, 1869, in NYT NYT, August 25, 1869; Syracuse Journal Syracuse Journal, August 23, 1869, in NYH NYH, August 25, 1869; Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 23, 1869, CV-NYHS.48 NYH NYH, August 25, 1869; Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 23, 1869, CV-NYHS; NYTr, March 30, 1878; NYS NYS, March 6, 1878.49 Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 23, 26, 1869, CV-NYHS; Frank A. Vanderbilt to Ma, August 23, 26, 1869, CV-NYHS; NYT NYT, August 24, 1869; HW HW, September 11, 1869.50 RGD, NYC 374:1, 10; JMD to EC, April 2, August 12, 1870, fold. 1, box 95, ECP. RGD, NYC 374:1, 10; JMD to EC, April 2, August 12, 1870, fold. 1, box 95, ECP.51 NYH NYH, September 2, 18, 19, 20, 30, October 1, 2, 1869; New York Stock and Exchange Board Minutes: 18671871, October 1, 1869, New York Stock Exchange Archives. See also JMD to EC, October 1, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP.52 This narrative of the gold market panic of 1869 relies primarily on Klein, 10015, still the single best account. See also William S. McFeely, This narrative of the gold market panic of 1869 relies primarily on Klein, 10015, still the single best account. See also William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography Grant: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 32031; Kenneth D. Ackerman, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 32031; Kenneth D. Ackerman, The Gold Room: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, and Black Friday, 1869 The Gold Room: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, and Black Friday, 1869 (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1988); and Julia Grant's and Boutwell's memoirs, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1988); and Julia Grant's and Boutwell's memoirs, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., Robber Barons and Radicals Robber Barons and Radicals (New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1997), 2179. (New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1997), 2179.53 McFeely, 32031; JMD to EC, October 2, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP. McFeely, 32031; JMD to EC, October 2, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP.54 Klein, 1005. Klein, 1005.55 Directors' Minutes, September 23, 1869, HR, oversize vol. 248, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR; JMD to EC, October 1, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP. The account of the panic that follows is largely derived from the following newspaper accounts: Directors' Minutes, September 23, 1869, HR, oversize vol. 248, vol. 3, box 34, NYCRR; JMD to EC, October 1, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP. The account of the panic that follows is largely derived from the following newspaper accounts: NYS NYS, September 27, 1869, in CT CT, September 30, 1869; NYT NYT, September 30, 1869; NYH NYH, September 18, October 1, 2, 3, 18, 1869; NYTr NYTr, September 25, 1869; NYW NYW, October 1, 2, 4, 1869; see also JMD to EC, September 23, 24, 30, October 4, 16, 20, 1869, fold. 2, JMD to EC, October 1, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP.56 JMD to EC, September 23, 24, 30, October 4, 16, 20, 1869, fold. 2, box 94, ECP. For commentary on the fear that CV could not control the Central's stock price, see RGD, NYC 342:262. JMD to EC, September 23, 24, 30, October 4, 16, 20, 1869, fold. 2, box 94, ECP. For commentary on the fear that CV could not control the Central's stock price, see RGD, NYC 342:262.57 NYW NYW, October 2, 1869. The press reported that CV borrowed $10 million against HR stock, but letters in BB suggest the loan was much smaller, with NYCRR stock as collateral. See S. G. Ward to Baring Brothers, October 2, 1869, reel 37, and (in code) Duncan to Baring Brothers, October 5, 1869, reel 42, BB. For further commentary on Vanderbilt's role in stemming the panic, see Medbery 156; JMD to EC, October 1, 1869, fold. 3, box 94, ECP. Other quotes and information can be found in the newspaper issues listed previously.58 NYH NYH, October 13, 1869; CT CT, October 15, 1869; Directors' Minutes, October 4, 5, 14, 15, 23, 1869, Finance Committee Minutes, October 16, 23, 24, November 4, 1869, LS&MS, reel 65, box 242, NYCRR.59 Chandler, Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 1517.60 H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For a discussion of the Michigan Central and other "Joy Roads," see H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. For a discussion of the Michigan Central and other "Joy Roads," see RRG RRG, June 11, 1870. Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 1579, recognizes this cautious policy, noting, "The Commodore did little to integrate the operations of that road [the Lake Shore] with those of the New York Central"-though he mistakenly writes that James H. Devereux managed it after 1873.61 H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867. H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP; NYSAD 19, 90th sess., 1867.62 Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Packard's Monthly Packard's Monthly, March 1869; Victor Fischer and Michael B. Frank, eds., Mark Twain's Letters Mark Twain's Letters, vol. 4 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 125n.63 John G. Sproat, John G. Sproat, "The Best Men": Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age "The Best Men": Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 6. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 6.64 Sproat, 1445; CFA, "Railroad Inflation," Sproat, 1445; CFA, "Railroad Inflation," NAR NAR, January 1869. Examples of editorials that follow Adams's critique abound; see, for example, Nation Nation, June 30, 1870.65 Warner quoted in Sproat, 255; see also 467, 2056; Warner quoted in Sproat, 255; see also 467, 2056; Galaxy Magazine Galaxy Magazine, June 1868; Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization The Economic Mind in American Civilization, vol. 2 (New York: Viking, 1946), 23; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Penguin, 1995), 229; T. J. Stiles, (New York: Penguin, 1995), 229; T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 220; Parkman quoted in Foner, 48990; see also 488511. I am interpreting the basis of Twain's friendship with Carnegie from David Nasaw, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 220; Parkman quoted in Foner, 48990; see also 488511. I am interpreting the basis of Twain's friendship with Carnegie from David Nasaw, Andrew Andrew Carnegie Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 6456, 6912, 7223. Social prejudice deeply informed the influential writings of CFA. His biographer observes, "It is hard to see how Adams's way of making a fortune greatly differed from that he censured. He borrowed and he gambled on the price of stocks, sometimes outrageously;" Edward Chase Kirkland, (New York: Penguin, 2006), 6456, 6912, 7223. Social prejudice deeply informed the influential writings of CFA. His biographer observes, "It is hard to see how Adams's way of making a fortune greatly differed from that he censured. He borrowed and he gambled on the price of stocks, sometimes outrageously;" Edward Chase Kirkland, Charles Francis Adams, Jr., 18351915: The Patrician at Bay Charles Francis Adams, Jr., 18351915: The Patrician at Bay (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), 77. For other uses of the term "robber baron," see (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), 77. For other uses of the term "robber baron," see RRG RRG, November 13, 1875.66 NYT NYT, November 11, 1869; NYTr NYTr, November 10, 11, 1869. On the statue, see NYT NYT, September 2, 8, 1869.67 Nation Nation, November 18, 1869; Jerome Mushkat, "Hall, A(braham) Oakey," in Kenneth T. Jackson, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York City The Encyclopedia of New York City (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 517. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 517.68 NYT NYT, September 2, 8, 1869; CT CT, November 25, 1871; HW HW, February 3, 1872; Directors' Minutes, November 3, December 16, 1869, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR.69 Burrows & Wallace, 9445; Burrows & Wallace, 9445; CT CT, November 25, 1871; HW HW, February 3, 1872; Directors' Minutes, November 3, December 16, 1869, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR.70 NYH NYH, January 22, 1870.71 NYH NYH, February 6, 1870; NYS NYS, February 7, 8, 1870.72 NYS NYS, February 8, 1870; NYH NYH, February 9, 1870; Victoria Woodhull to Whitelaw Reid, January 26, 1870, Tennie C. Claflin to Whitelaw Reid, February 6, 1870, reel 192, Reid Family Papers, LOC. See also NYH NYH, February 3, 1870, in CT CT, February 8, 1870.73 NYH NYH, February 6, 1870.74 "Memoir of Alva Murray Smith Vanderbilt Belmont," Matilda Young Papers, Duke. "Memoir of Alva Murray Smith Vanderbilt Belmont," Matilda Young Papers, Duke.75 Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "A Victoria Woodhull for the 1990s," Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "A Victoria Woodhull for the 1990s," Reviews in American History Reviews in American History 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797, and "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock, and Conflict over Sex in the United States in the 1870s," 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797, and "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock, and Conflict over Sex in the United States in the 1870s," JAH JAH 87, no. 2 (September 2000); Mary Gabriel, 87, no. 2 (September 2000); Mary Gabriel, Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Woodhull, Uncensored Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Woodhull, Uncensored (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), 92; see also Amanda Frisken, (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), 92; see also Amanda Frisken, Victoria Woodhull's Sexual Revolution: Political Theater and the Popular Press in Nineteenth-Century America Victoria Woodhull's Sexual Revolution: Political Theater and the Popular Press in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Burrows & Wallace, 9815; Foner, 4469, 4724. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Burrows & Wallace, 9815; Foner, 4469, 4724.76 NYS NYS, September 25, 1870; NYH NYH, May 17, 1871; NYTr NYTr, May 17, 1871; October 16, 1878.77 NYS NYS, November 14, 1877; Joseph Treat, Beecher, Tilton, Woodhull, and the Creation of Society: All Four of Them Exposed, and if Possible Reformed, and Forgiven, in Dr. Treat's Celebrated Letter to Victoria C Woodhull Beecher, Tilton, Woodhull, and the Creation of Society: All Four of Them Exposed, and if Possible Reformed, and Forgiven, in Dr. Treat's Celebrated Letter to Victoria C Woodhull (New York: n.p., 1874), Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library. (New York: n.p., 1874), Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library.78 CV revised his will on January 9, 1870, providing $500,000 in securities for his wife and daughters, with no mention of Claflin or Woodhull; CV revised his will on January 9, 1870, providing $500,000 in securities for his wife and daughters, with no mention of Claflin or Woodhull; NYH NYH, March 5, 1879. Edward J. Renehan Jr., Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt (New York: Basic Books, 2007), claims that John J. Ogden testified in court to the points made here, as reported in (New York: Basic Books, 2007), claims that John J. Ogden testified in court to the points made here, as reported in NYT NYT, March 2, 1878. Renehan is wrong; the source he cites clearly shows that the lawyer made claims for what Ogden would say, but the testimony was prevented by the Surrogate, who declared, "I don't see that the conversation is any evidence of unsoundness of mind. It might be a question of taste."79 NYH NYH, January 22, February 13, 1870; NYS NYS, March 26, 1870. One of the would-be witnesses by whom the lawyers offered to prove that CV had put his arm around Claflin, kissed her, and performed other scandalous acts was her father, Buck Claflin, whom even the sympathetic Goldsmith acknowledges to have been a confidence artist. He did not actually testify to the allegations; NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1878. The other purported witness was John J. Ogden, but he, too, did not speak to it in court; NYS NYS, March 2, 1878; NYH NYH, March 2, 1878.80 RGD, NYC 349:1062. RGD, NYC 349:1062.81 NYTr NYTr, October 16, 1878; NYT NYT, January 5, 1875, August 7, 1876, December 8, 1877. Bodenhamer testified, "His mind was clear and his perception good as long as I knew him.... I do not know that I ever did know a more clear-headed man under such suffering [in his final illness]. I never saw him when his mind was not clear. In my opinion he was at all times capable of transacting any business he was accustomed to;" NYT NYT, December 8, 1877. Bodenhamer is a particularly credible witness, because he clearly did not shade his testimony to cast Vanderbilt in a favorable light. He was a leading medical authority, and the author of The Physical Exploration of the Rectum The Physical Exploration of the Rectum (New York: William Wood, 1870). (New York: William Wood, 1870).82 NYH NYH, June 8, 1871; NYT NYT, January 5, 1875.83 Directors' Minutes, January 27, 1870, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, January 27, 1870, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, NYCRR; NYT NYT, February 12, 28, March 4, April 10, 1870; NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880, 201; CFA, "Railway Problems in 1869," NAR NAR, January 1870. See also RGD, NYC 342:262. The NYT NYT included state bond interest payments in its calculation. included state bond interest payments in its calculation.84 NYC&HR Annual Report, December 16, 1870, Annual Reports Folder, box 34, NYCRR; NYSAD 161, 91st sess., 1868; Chandler, NYC&HR Annual Report, December 16, 1870, Annual Reports Folder, box 34, NYCRR; NYSAD 161, 91st sess., 1868; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 154.85 Walter Licht, Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 189. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 189.86 Chandler, Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 81121, 14556; Licht, 27; Foner, 46188; Burrows & Wallace, 96687.87 CT CT, March 4, May 5, 6, 1870, January 13, 1871; RRG RRG, May 7, June 4, 1870, June 28, 1873; NYTr NYTr, October 30, 1869; NYTr NYTr, in RRG RRG, May 21, 1870; NYT NYT, May 25, 27, 1870; RT RT, June 18, 1870; JMD to EC, May 9, August 12, 1870, fold. 1, box 95, ECP; New York Stock and Exchange Board Minutes: 18671871, May 14, 1870, New York Stock Exchange Archives; Executive Committee Minutes, March 10, 13, 1870, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, NYCRR.88 NYH NYH, June 8, 1870; CT CT, June 7, 8, 11, 1870; NYT NYT, June 7, 8, 1870; RRG RRG, May 14, June 11, 1870; Klein, 96.89 NYTr NYTr, June 14, 1870, in CT CT, June 16, 1870; NYT NYT, March 16, 1870; Klein, 92.90 NYTr NYTr, June 29, 1870; CT CT, July 2, 4, 6, 1870; RRG RRG, July 2, 1870; see also HC HC, June 13, 1870; NYH NYH, June 19, 1870. These newspaper reports make clear that the Erie initiated the cut to $1 per car, often ascribed to the Central by historians.91 NYT NYT, July 1, 15, 1870; New York Commercial New York Commercial, in CT CT, August 2, 1870.92 The press reports of this encounter named Richard, not Augustus, Schell, but I think this was a mistake. Richard played no part in the Central's management, but the Schell at this meeting pressed for a compromise. The press reports of this encounter named Richard, not Augustus, Schell, but I think this was a mistake. Richard played no part in the Central's management, but the Schell at this meeting pressed for a compromise. NYS NYS in in CT CT, August 13, 23, 1870; Albion Albion, August 20, 1870; NYT NYT, August 23, October 29, 1870; NYS NYS, November 28, 1872.93 RRG RRG, July 2, November 19, 26, December 3, 17, 24, 1870; Circular Circular, July 25, 1870; The Stockholder The Stockholder, in RRG RRG, September 17, 1870; HC HC, November 26, 1870, July 19, 1871; Directors' Minutes, July 6, 1871, Dunkirk, Warren & Pittsburgh Railroad Company, reel 58, box 242, Directors' Minutes, May 3, 1871, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; Edward Chase Kirkland, Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900 Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 18201900, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 3725.94 NYT NYT, October 13, 1870; The Telegrapher The Telegrapher, in RRG RRG, October 29, 1870. CV would imply (though not explicitly state) that he had no stake in Western Union, in NYT NYT, January 21, 1873. Norvin Green, then a vice president of Western Union, later testified before Congress, "In 1869 Commodore Vanderbilt and his friends came in. Horace Clark... and Mr. Schell and a number of leading men came into the company and organized an executive committee, suspended dividends, and introduced some new features." See SR 577, 48th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 1, 2238. Historians have generally taken this as proof of CVs leading role. See, for example, Julius Grodinsky, Jay Gould: His Business Career, 18671892 Jay Gould: His Business Career, 18671892 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 150. However, Green seems to have been speaking casually; he misdated this event by a year (among other factual errors he made in his testimony), and may have been making the offhand connection between CV and HFC that most observers made at the time. I am not fully convinced that CV did in fact invest in Western Union at this time. See also SR 1262, 48th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1, 9489. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 150. However, Green seems to have been speaking casually; he misdated this event by a year (among other factual errors he made in his testimony), and may have been making the offhand connection between CV and HFC that most observers made at the time. I am not fully convinced that CV did in fact invest in Western Union at this time. See also SR 1262, 48th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1, 9489.95 CT CT, May 5, 6, 1870; RRG RRG, May 7, June 4, 1870; NYTr NYTr, in RRG RRG, May 21, 1870; NYT NYT, May 25, 27, 1870; RT RT, June 18, 1870.96 NYT NYT, November 23, 24, 1870.97 CT CT, August 29, 1870. CVs defenders often wrote that he engaged in secret charity disdaining public approbation; see a letter to the editor, NYS NYS, September 24, 1870.98 Edward M. Deems and Francis M. Deems, Edward M. Deems and Francis M. Deems, Autobiography of Charles Force Deems and Memoir by his Sons Autobiography of Charles Force Deems and Memoir by his Sons (New York: Fleming H. Reveli, 1897), 194, 196, 205; (New York: Fleming H. Reveli, 1897), 194, 196, 205; NYTr NYTr, October 24, 1878; NYT NYT, September 2, 1870, August 3, 1874.99 NYTr NYTr, January 15, 1877; Deems, 2067.100 Deems, 2078. Deems, 2078.101 Deems, 20814; Charles F. Deems to Mrs. Vanderbilt, August 6, 1870, Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; Deems, 20814; Charles F. Deems to Mrs. Vanderbilt, August 6, 1870, Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; HC HC, August 5, 1870; NYT NYT, September 2, 1870.102 CV was quoted by Edwin D. Worcester, CV was quoted by Edwin D. Worcester, NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879.103 NYS NYS, December 15, 1877.104 CT CT, September 3, 1871; NYT NYT, October 15, November 2, 1871, August 3, 1874; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877.105 NYT NYT, March 20, 23, 1870; NYS NYS, December 20, 1877; Ellen W. Vanderbilt to HG, October 18, 1871 [?], reel 3, HGP.106 Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, May 12, 1871, fold. 24, and Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, n.d., fold. 26, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island. Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, May 12, 1871, fold. 24, and Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, n.d., fold. 26, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island.107 NYH NYH, August 3, 1871; NYT NYT, August 3, 18, September 3, 16, 1871.108 NYW NYW, June 30, 1871, in RRG RRG, July 8, 1871; RT RT, August 12, 1871; HW HW, February 3, 1872; Burrows & Wallace, 944.109 Directors' Minutes, May 16, 1871, Lease Agreement, November 17, 1872, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR; NYSSD 41, February 28, 1872. The taking of land for the depot, under the state authorization of 1869, resulted in extended, tedious legal complications; Directors' Minutes, May 16, 1871, Lease Agreement, November 17, 1872, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR; NYSSD 41, February 28, 1872. The taking of land for the depot, under the state authorization of 1869, resulted in extended, tedious legal complications; RT RT, July 23, 1870.110 NYT NYT, November 17, 1871; Burrows & Wallace, 92931, 9435.111 NYH NYH, July 28, 1871; Second Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company, to the Stockholders for the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1871 Second Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company, to the Stockholders for the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1871 (Cleveland: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co, 1872), Baker Library, Harvard Business School. (Cleveland: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co, 1872), Baker Library, Harvard Business School.112 NYH NYH, October 20, 1871; RRG, October 28, 1871; Second Annual Report of the... Lake Shore Second Annual Report of the... Lake Shore.113 CT CT, May 6, 1871; NYT, April 25, 1871; BM BM, March 1872.114 NYT NYT, September 7, 1871; Seymour J. Mandelbaum, Boss Tweed's New York Boss Tweed's New York (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 7686; Burrows & Wallace, 100811. The Samuel J. Tilden Papers in the New York Public Library collections show frequent correspondence with AS. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965), 7686; Burrows & Wallace, 100811. The Samuel J. Tilden Papers in the New York Public Library collections show frequent correspondence with AS.115 NYT NYT, September 7, December 30, 1871; CT CT, August 7, 1872. As a sign of just how close AS and HFC were, HFC served as the equivalent of best man in AS's Quaker wedding in 1873; CT CT, March 27, 1873.

Eighteen Dynasty Dynasty 1 NYH NYH, January 13, 1872; NYT NYT, October 17, 19, November 16, 17, 18, 22, 1871, December 12, 1871. For a count of the number of trains that ran on Fourth Avenue, see WHV's testimony, NYSSD 41, February 28, 1872. For earlier complaints about the noise and danger of the trains on Fourth Avenue, see Jonas P. Sevy to Corporation Counsel, July 27, 1868, Jonas P. Sevy to Corporation Counsel, July 27, 1868, box 1216, Mayor John T. Hoffman Correspondence, Mayors' Papers, NYMA.2 NYH NYH, January 13, 1872.3 NYT NYT, January 27, 1872.4 Adam Smith, Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 2000), book 1, chap. 10, part 1, 148; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., (New York: Modern Library, 2000), book 1, chap. 10, part 1, 148; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), 137. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), 137.5 John D. Rockefeller Sr. to Laura S. Rockefeller, December 15, 1871, fold. 270, box 36, Record Group 1.2, Rockefeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Ron Chernow, John D. Rockefeller Sr. to Laura S. Rockefeller, December 15, 1871, fold. 270, box 36, Record Group 1.2, Rockefeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 1338; Edward Harold Mott, Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie Between the Ocean and the Lakes: The Story of Erie (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 46770; Rolland Harper Maybee, (New York: Ticker Publishing, 1908), 46770; Rolland Harper Maybee, Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), 2446, 253, 2634, 280, 282, 285305. (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), 2446, 253, 2634, 280, 282, 285305.6 John D. Rockefeller Sr. to Laura S. Rockefeller, December 15, 1871, fold. 270, box 36, Record Group 1.2, Rockefeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y; John D. Rockefeller Sr. to Laura S. Rockefeller, December 15, 1871, fold. 270, box 36, Record Group 1.2, Rockefeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y; NYT NYT, August 22, 28, 1879; WHV to J. H. Devereaux, July 2, 1872, and John D. Rockefeller to J. H. Devereux, December 7, 1872, fold. 19, box 1, New York Central Railroad Collection, Albany Institute for History and Art, Albany, N.Y; H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP; JMD to EC, June 3, 1868, fold. 8, box 39, ECP; Chernow, 1107. Rolland Harper Maybee, Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 Railroad Competition and the Oil Trade, 18551873 (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), is an excellent study of the economics of oil traffic for railroads, and the advantages of the SIC. (Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Extension Press, 1940), is an excellent study of the economics of oil traffic for railroads, and the advantages of the SIC.7 CT CT, April 3, 1872; NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880, 401; H W H W, July 12, 1873; RRG RRG, June 13, 1874; Maybee, 10110, 16572, 1828, 286; James A. Ward, J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 956, 14051; Scott Reynolds Nelson, (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 956, 14051; Scott Reynolds Nelson, Iron Confederacies: Southern Railways, Klan Violence, and Reconstruction Iron Confederacies: Southern Railways, Klan Violence, and Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 7194; Chandler, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 7194; Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 1516. On Scott's role as mentor to Carnegie, see David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 5585. (New York: Penguin, 2006), 5585.8 Nasaw, 5960, 613, 105112; Nelson, 13862; Maybee, 101, 114, 1338, 286. Nasaw writes, 122, that Scott "followed the standard financing practices of the time and established improvement companies," whereas Scott had pioneered the form. Ward, 150, notes that Scott, for example, organized the Pennsylvania Company, a subsidiary corporation that owned or leased the Pennsylvania's western connections. Nasaw, 5960, 613, 105112; Nelson, 13862; Maybee, 101, 114, 1338, 286. Nasaw writes, 122, that Scott "followed the standard financing practices of the time and established improvement companies," whereas Scott had pioneered the form. Ward, 150, notes that Scott, for example, organized the Pennsylvania Company, a subsidiary corporation that owned or leased the Pennsylvania's western connections.9 Chandler, Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 14587. Chandler astutely discusses these divergent patterns of system building, but fails to appreciate the defensive advantages of CVs decision not to integrate his lines. As noted, CV not only insulated his companies from each other's ailments, but also shielded himself from political outrage at his expanding reach.10 Maury Klein, Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 18621893 Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 18621893 (Garden City, N.Y: Dou-bleday 1987), 2867; Nasaw, 1224. Citations of "Klein" below refer to (Garden City, N.Y: Dou-bleday 1987), 2867; Nasaw, 1224. Citations of "Klein" below refer to Jay Gould Jay Gould.11 NYT NYT, March 22, 26, 1872; Chernow, 1412.12 NYH NYH, January 7, 9, 1872; HW HW, January 20, 1872; NYT NYT, May 2, 1874; New York Observer and Chronicle New York Observer and Chronicle, February 29, 1872; BM BM, March 1872; CT CT, January 1, 1873; Klein, 1215. The phrase "porcine carcass" is from William L. Garrison to Wife, May 24, 1871, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library.13 CT CT, April 1, 1872; NYTr NYTr, June 15, 1878; Family Record, WFP.14 Both Smith and Corey testified to their conversations during the will trial; Both Smith and Corey testified to their conversations during the will trial; NYTr NYTr, June 15, 1878.15 Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, April 12, 20, May 14, 1871, fold. 24, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island. In making these generalizations, I am drawing on a reading of the full contents of folds. 2326, box 59, ser. 13, in this collection. Cornelius J. Vanderbilt to George Terry, April 12, 20, May 14, 1871, fold. 24, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island. In making these generalizations, I am drawing on a reading of the full contents of folds. 2326, box 59, ser. 13, in this collection.16 NYS NYS, December 19, 22, 1877; NYT NYT, December 29, 1877; NYTr NYTr, February 27, 1878; CT CT, January 13, 1873; CJV to HG, June 25, 1872, reel 3, HGP.17 Chauncey M. Depew, Chauncey M. Depew, My Memories of Eighty Years My Memories of Eighty Years (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 912; Foner, 50110; (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 912; Foner, 50110; NYT NYT, April 16, 1872.18 NYT NYT, March 15, 1872; CT CT, April 5, 1872; NYH NYH, April 18, 20, 22, 1873.19 NYT NYT, April 11, 16, 19, 20, 23, 1872; NYH NYH, April 23, 24, May 3, 1872.20 CV to Samuel J. Tilden, May 20, 1872, Samuel J. Tilden to CV to Samuel J. Tilden, May 20, 1872, Samuel J. Tilden to CV CV, June 14, 1872, fold. 8, box 7, Samuel J. Tilden Papers, NYPL.21 Grenville M. Dodge, Philadelphia, to U. S. Grant, June 6, 1872, in John Y. Simon, ed. Grenville M. Dodge, Philadelphia, to U. S. Grant, June 6, 1872, in John Y. Simon, ed. The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, vol. 23 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 2000), 163.22 Klein, Klein, Union Pacific Union Pacific, 28790.23 WHV to Edwin D. Morgan, April 17, June 14, 1872, fold. 3, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL; WHV to Edwin D. Morgan, April 17, June 14, 1872, fold. 3, box 13, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL; NYT NYT, March 21, 1871. It was generally believed that CV had bought control of Western Union by 1872; see Gardiner G. Hubbard, "In the Matter of the Postal Telegraph Bill," April 22, 1872, Baker Library, Harvard Business School.24 NYT NYT, June 26, 1872, April 17, 1873, March 12, 1898; CT CT, April 17, 1873; NYH NYH, April 17, 1873; Paul H. Bergeron, ed., The Papers of Andrew Johnson The Papers of Andrew Johnson, vol. 14 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 2789n.25 NYH NYH, February 24, March 7, 1872; NYTr NYTr, October 3, 1873.26 NYH NYH, March 7, 1872; RRG RRG, June 28, 1873; HsR 78, 42nd Cong., 3rd sess., vol. 2. See also RRG RRG, March 16, 1872.27 NYH NYH, April 23, 1872; BG BG, May 31, 1872, January 29, 1873; NYT NYT, April 11, 16, May 9, September 7, 1872, November 1, 1873; RT RT, October 12, 1872; CT CT, December 12, 1872; New York Evangelist New York Evangelist, July 8, 1875; Executive & Finance Committee Minutes, May 2, 1873, HRR, reel 26, box 242, NYCRR.28 CV to JHB, February 10, 1872, CV-NYHS. See also CV to JHB, March 1, 3, 1873, May 22, n.d., same collection. CV to JHB, February 10, 1872, CV-NYHS. See also CV to JHB, March 1, 3, 1873, May 22, n.d., same collection.29 CT CT, July 6, 1873.30 NYT NYT, July 4, 1872; CT CT, August 4, 1872; New York World New York World in in CT CT, August 21, 1872; NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879; Ethelinda Vanderbilt Allen to Frank Armstrong Crawford Vanderbilt, July 20, 1872, CV-NYHS. Chivalric tournaments were especially popular with Southerners; see T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 224. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 224.31 AtlC AtlC, May 26, July 17, 1872; CT CT, May 27, 1872, April 26, 1873; BG BG, May 27, 1872; NYT NYT, May 31, June 7, 1872. CV later made Crawford an agent and director of the NYC&HR.32 NYT NYT, October 29, 1872; NYH NYH, October 30, 1872; CT CT, November 17, 1872; SA SA, November 30, 1872; NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879; James P. McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses and Disease in a City in Motion," NYH NYH 79, no. 1 (January 1998): 522; Burrows & Wallace, 948. 79, no. 1 (January 1998): 522; Burrows & Wallace, 948.33 NYT NYT, November 21, 1872; NYH NYH, November 23, 1872; CT CT, November 23, 25, 27, 1872; New York Commercial Advertiser New York Commercial Advertiser, in CT CT, December 1, 1872; Commercial and Financial Chronicle Commercial and Financial Chronicle, November 30, 1872; RRG RRG, November 30, 1872; Klein, 12932.34 NYH NYH, November 27, 1872.35 NYT NYT, January 5, 1877.36 NYS NYS, November 27, 1872.37 NYS NYS, November 28, 1872.38 RRG RRG, November 30, 1872.39 NYT NYT, April 10, 1872; NYH NYH, November 30, 1872; CT CT, March 4, 1873; SEP SEP, April 4, 1873.40 Mrs. Frank A. Vanderbilt to Chancellor Garland, n.d., Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; Mrs. Frank A. Vanderbilt to Chancellor Garland, n.d., Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; New York Sun New York Sun in in AtlC AtlC, May 5, 1876; NYTr NYTr, November 21, 1878; CV to H. N. McTyeire, March 17, 1873, Resolutions of Board Accepting the Gift of Commodore Vanderbilt to Central University, March 26, 1873, CV to G. C. Kelly, March 31, 1873, H. N. McTyeire to CV, May 21, 1873, CV to H. N. McTyeire, May 26, 1873, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL. CVs correspondence with McTyeire verifies that McTyeire came to New York to be treated by Bodenhamer; see H. N. McTyeire to CV, July 31, 1873, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL.41 NYTr NYTr, October 24, 1878.42 Mrs. Frank A. Vanderbilt to Chancellor Garland, n.d., Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; Mrs. Frank A. Vanderbilt to Chancellor Garland, n.d., Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; New York Sun New York Sun in in AtlC AtlC, May 5, 1876; NYTr NYTr, November 21, 1878; CV to H. N. McTyeire, March 17, 1873, Resolutions of Board Accepting the Gift of Commodore Vanderbilt to Central University, March 26, 1873, CV to G. C. Kelly, March 31, 1873, H. N. McTyeire to CV May 21, 1873, CV to H. N. McTyeire, May 26, 1873, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL. CVs correspondence with McTyeire shows that he took a close personal interest in the progress and the financing of the university. In the letter of May 26, for example, he gave instructions to McTyeire on how to date the drafts on him so that they would be properly paid.43 RRG RRG, November 2, 1872; Executive Committee Minutes, January 11, 1873, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, NYCRR. The minutes of this meeting show CV in full command, as he presented negotiations he had conducted for the lease of a grain elevator in Buffalo.44 NYS NYS in in CT CT, January 14, 1873; RRG RRG, February 8, August 9, 1873; HED 46, part 2, 44th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 13.45 NYS in CT NYS in CT, January 14, 1873.46 Board of Directors' Minutes, April 1, 2, 1873, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, Lease Agreement, April 1, 1873, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. On a prior reorganization of the New York Central & Hudson River, see Board of Directors' Minutes, April 1, 2, 1873, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, Lease Agreement, April 1, 1873, HRR, reel 27, box 242, NYCRR. On a prior reorganization of the New York Central & Hudson River, see RRG RRG, December 30, 1871.47 CV to JHB, March 1, 3, 1873, CV-NYHS; Executive Committee Minutes, March 3, 1873, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, Directors' Minutes, March 3, 1873, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; CV to JHB, March 1, 3, 1873, CV-NYHS; Executive Committee Minutes, March 3, 1873, NYC&HR, vol. 1, box 93, Directors' Minutes, March 3, 1873, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; NYT NYT, March 10, 1873.48 NYT NYT, January 20, 21, February 7, 1873; HC HC, July 4, 1873.49 NYH NYH, April 17, 1873.50 J. S. Morgan to Carnegie, quoted in Nasaw, 144; J. P. Morgan to Junius Spencer Morgan, April 16, 1873, J. P. Morgan Letterpress Books, vol. 1, Department of Literary and Historical Manuscripts, Morgan Library. J. S. Morgan to Carnegie, quoted in Nasaw, 144; J. P. Morgan to Junius Spencer Morgan, April 16, 1873, J. P. Morgan Letterpress Books, vol. 1, Department of Literary and Historical Manuscripts, Morgan Library.51 NYH NYH, April 17, 18, 1873; NYT NYT, April 17, 1873; CV to Samuel L. M. Barlow, March 6, 1860, BW box 36 (14), Samuel L. M. Barlow Collection, HL.52 RGD, NYC 343:316 RGD, NYC 343:316 NYW NYW, November 14, 1877.53 NYT NYT, June 20, 21, 22, 23, 1873; HW HW, July 12, 1873. 12, 1873.54 NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879.55 Directors' Minutes, June 30, July 2, October 10, 1873, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, June 30, July 2, October 10, 1873, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; CT CT, July 17, 18, 1873; NYH NYH, July 17, 1873; BG BG, July 17, 1873.56 NYW in Railway World NYW in Railway World, April 17, 1875; CT CT, July 17, 1873; Cleveland Leader in CT Cleveland Leader in CT, July 24, 1873; Fourth Annual Report Fourth Annual Report. On Amasa Stone, see Magazine of Western History Magazine of Western History, December 1885.57 New York World in Railway World New York World in Railway World, April 17, 1875; NYTr NYTr, September 22, 23, 1873; Fourth Annual Report; Testimony Taken Before the Special Committee of the Assembly... in the Matter of the Erie Railway Investigation Fourth Annual Report; Testimony Taken Before the Special Committee of the Assembly... in the Matter of the Erie Railway Investigation (1873), Erie Railway Company Collection, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, 716. (1873), Erie Railway Company Collection, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, 716.58 CT CT, October 25, 1873; NYTr NYTr, October 25, 1873.59 NYT NYT, July 1, 1873; AtlC AtlC, August 5, September 21, 1873; HW HW, October 11, 1873; RGD, NYC 374:1, 10; H. N. McTyeire to CV, July 31, 1873, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL.60 NYH NYH, September 19, 1873.61 NYH NYH, September 19, 21, 1873; NYTr NYTr, September 19, 1873; HW HW, November 1, 1873. The pre-panic market capitalization figures are based on average stock prices in the weeks preceding the collapse.62 Entries for September 18, 19, 2227, 1873, John V. L. Pruyn Journal, box 2, John V. L. Pruyn Papers, NYSL. Entries for September 18, 19, 2227, 1873, John V. L. Pruyn Journal, box 2, John V. L. Pruyn Papers, NYSL.63 NYH NYH, September 21, 22, 23, 1873; NYTr NYTr, September 22, October 3, 1873; entries for September 2227, 1873, October 4, 9, 1873, Pruyn Journal.64 NYH NYH, September 22, 1873; CT CT, September 23, 1873; Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization The Economic Mind in American Civilization, vol. 3, 18651918 18651918 (New York: Viking, 1949), 15; Esther Rogoff Taus, (New York: Viking, 1949), 15; Esther Rogoff Taus, Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 Central Banking Functions of the United States Treasury, 17891941 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 6871. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 6871.65 Strong, 4:498; Foner, 5124; Jean Strouse, Strong, 4:498; Foner, 5124; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999), 1507. (New York: Random House, 1999), 1507.66 Burrows & Wallace, 991, 102234. Burrows & Wallace, 991, 102234.67 Nasaw, 1515; Strouse, 1507; James A. Ward, Nasaw, 1515; Strouse, 1507; James A. Ward, J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania J. Edgar Thomson: Master of the Pennsylvania (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 20215. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 20215.68 NYH NYH, October 15, 1873; NYTr NYTr, October 24, 187 1873; NYT NYT, October 29, 1873; CT CT, April 11, 1874, November 14, 1882; Chauncey M. Depew, My Memories of Eighty Years My Memories of Eighty Years (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 353. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 353.69 Entry for October 9, 24, 1873, Pruyn Journal; Entry for October 9, 24, 1873, Pruyn Journal; NYT NYT, October 28, 1873. Lest there be any confusion about which Vanderbilt negotiated with the trustees, Pruyn's journal specifies that CV proposed the final settlement, confirming press accounts.70 NYT NYT, October 28, 1873; Executive Committee Minutes, December 17, 1873, Directors' Minutes, April 18, 1874, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; Depew, 354.71 RRG RRG, May 16, 1874. See also NYW NYW, April 9, 1875, in Railway World Railway World, April 17, 1875. It should be noted that the LS&MS minutes show that WHV was not present at some meetings over which his father presided, and that CV took an active part in all the meetings-presenting, for example, the results of his negotiations with Schell. See Executive Committee Minutes, December 17, 1873, Directors' Minutes, April 18, 1874, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR.72 Edwin D. Worcester testified on the lease plan, and WHV's lack of knowledge of it; Edwin D. Worcester testified on the lease plan, and WHV's lack of knowledge of it; NYS NYS, December 15, 1877.73 NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879; HC HC, October 9, 1873; RRG RRG, October 18, 1873; Western Union Telegraph Company Annual Report, 1873, Baker Library, Harvard Business School; Klein, Gould Gould, 196205.74 NYH NYH, September 10, 1873.75 Irwin Unger, Irwin Unger, The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 18651879 The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 18651879 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 203; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 203; CT CT, April 1, 1873. See also RRG RRG, April 19, 1873, and the still-important Robert P. Sharkey Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959). (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959).76 CT CT, April 1, 1873; Nation Nation, May 1, 1873; Stiles, 232. See also George H. Miller, Railroads and the Granger Laws Railroads and the Granger Laws (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971). (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971).77 Stiles, 1701; Unger, 195327; Richard Franklin Bensel, Stiles, 1701; Unger, 195327; Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 30365; Foner, 4802; Sven Beckert, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 30365; Foner, 4802; Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18151896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18151896 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 192. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 192.78 Beckert, 190(see also 1912); Schell quoted in Unger, 48, also 195327. During Andrew Johnson's administration, one conservative banker, steeped in hard-money orthodoxy, compared a return to the resumption of specie payments to death-necessary for eternal salvation, but to be resisted to the end; Dorfman, 45. On railroad cartels and attempts to cooperate, see Chandler, Beckert, 190(see also 1912); Schell quoted in Unger, 48, also 195327. During Andrew Johnson's administration, one conservative banker, steeped in hard-money orthodoxy, compared a return to the resumption of specie payments to death-necessary for eternal salvation, but to be resisted to the end; Dorfman, 45. On railroad cartels and attempts to cooperate, see Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand, 12287; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999), 1959. (New York: Random House, 1999), 1959.79 Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183. See also Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183. See also Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. On the postCivil War struggles of the Supreme Court to account for the new corporate age, see Michael A. Ross, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965. On the postCivil War struggles of the Supreme Court to account for the new corporate age, see Michael A. Ross, Justice of Shattered Dreams: Samuel Freeman Miller and the Supreme Court during the Civil War Era Justice of Shattered Dreams: Samuel Freeman Miller and the Supreme Court during the Civil War Era (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 176254. Miller had long criticized the "money power," and in 1877 voted with the 72 majority in (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 176254. Miller had long criticized the "money power," and in 1877 voted with the 72 majority in Munn v. Illinois Munn v. Illinois, which accepted the constitutionality of Granger laws. The justices were products of their time. As Ross writes, 254, "Throughout his judicial career, Miller clung to the Republican ideology of the 1850s, an ideology that became impracticable as a result [of] the nation's postwar economic transformations."80 Alan Trachtenberg, Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), 5960, 7986; Stiles, 37695; see also Chandler, (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), 5960, 7986; Stiles, 37695; see also Chandler, Visible Hand Visible Hand.81 NYS NYS, December 15, 1877; NYT, December 15, 1877.82 NYT NYT, December 29, 1877.83 NYTr NYTr, November 21, June 15, 1878.84 New York Sunday News New York Sunday News, January 6, 1878, Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL.85 Cornelius [J.] Vanderbilt to Thurlow Weed, May 28, 1875, Thurlow Weed Papers, NYHS. Cornelius [J.] Vanderbilt to Thurlow Weed, May 28, 1875, Thurlow Weed Papers, NYHS.86 NYTr NYTr, March 13, 1878.87 LW Dictation; LW Dictation; Independent Independent, August 13, 1874.88 NYH NYH, March 5, 1879; NYTr NYTr, January 9, 1877.89 Beckert, 220. Beckert, 220.90 NYTr NYTr, January 9, 1877, February 6, 1879; RRG RRG, June 20, 1874.91 NYT NYT, November 8, 1872, June 2, 1874, December 16, 1875; Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, February 17, 1875; CT CT, January 25, 1876; AtlC AtlC, February 20, 1876; NYS, in Atlanta Constitution NYS, in Atlanta Constitution, April 25, 1875.92 NYT NYT, February 15, 1879 (this account mistakenly substitutes "president" for the correct "vice president"); NYT NYT, December 15, 1877; Directors' Minutes, May 6, June 16, August 8, 1874, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; H. E. Sargent to JFJ, May 16, 1874, JFJP Sargent named the rivalry between WHV and HFC as one reason for the Central's prior neutrality between the North Shore lines and the Lake Shore, a statement supported by Amasa Stone Jr., NYT NYT, November 23, 1878.93 CV to H. N. McTyeire, June 15, 1874, WHV to Bishop H. N. McTyeire, February 24, 1877, H. N. McTyeire, "Last Words Before Leaving for the Ecumenical Conference in London," June 28, 1881, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL; CV to H. N. McTyeire, March 24, 1874, fold. 23, box 2, John James Tigert IV Papers, Special Collections, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University; CV to H. N. McTyeire, June 15, 1874, WHV to Bishop H. N. McTyeire, February 24, 1877, H. N. McTyeire, "Last Words Before Leaving for the Ecumenical Conference in London," June 28, 1881, Correspondence of Cornelius and William H. Vanderbilt, NYPL; CV to H. N. McTyeire, March 24, 1874, fold. 23, box 2, John James Tigert IV Papers, Special Collections, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University; CT CT, September 3, 1875; NYH NYH, October 5, 1875. See also CV to H. N. McTyeire, July 13, 1874, CV to H. N. McTyeire, December 2, 1875, F. A. P. Barnard to CV June 29, 1876, NYPL; Charles F. Deems to CV October 2, 1875, Mrs. F. A. Vanderbilt Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library; Nashville American Nashville American, June 17, 1876, in NYT NYT, June 20, 1876.94 NYW NYW, December 13, 1877; NYS NYS, March 6, 1878.95 CT CT, May 29, 30, 1874; RRG RRG, March 21, April 11, June 13, 1874. For a review of the impact of the depression over the course of 1874, see RRG RRG, December 26, 1874. For explicit statements by both CV and WHV that CV set the nonaggression policy, see CT CT, May 10, 1876, NYT NYT, June 16, 1876.96 RGD, NYC 374:1. RGD, NYC 374:1.97 RRG RRG, July 6, December 26, 1874.98 CT CT, August 3, 1874; RRG RRG, August 8, 15, September 12, 1872.99 CT CT, October 16, 22, 1874; RRG RRG, October 31, November 21, 1874.100 HC HC, November 13, 1874; CT CT, November 6, 1874; RRG RRG, September 24, November 14, 21, 1874; NYT NYT, November 13, 18, 1874; EP in NYT EP in NYT, November 18, 1874; NYH NYH, February 18, March 27, 1875.101 NYT NYT, June 24, 1875. During the year, CV traveled to Cleveland for the LS&MS annual meeting and took part in discussions with Scott and Garrett; see Directors' Minutes, May 5, 1875, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; CT CT, May 5, 1875: NYT NYT, May 6, 1875; RRG RRG, May 8, 1875; NYH NYH, June 9, 1875; CT CT, June 9, 14, 1875; RRG RRG, June 19, 26, July 3, 1875. WHV, however, clearly took operational leadership; see, for example, NYH NYH, December 26, 1875.102 I am grateful to Prof. Richard R. John of the University of Illinois at Chicago and David Hochfelder, Edison Papers, Rutgers University, for providing summaries of these two letters (John W. Garrett to CV, November 17, 1875, and William Orton to CV November 19, 1875). They appear in fold. 1, box 200B, subser. 1, ser. 4, Western Union Telegraph Company Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Orton quote from William Orton to Edwin D. Morgan, May 12, 1876, fold. 9, box 10, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL. I am grateful to Prof. Richard R. John of the University of Illinois at Chicago and David Hochfelder, Edison Papers, Rutgers University, for providing summaries of these two letters (John W. Garrett to CV, November 17, 1875, and William Orton to CV November 19, 1875). They appear in fold. 1, box 200B, subser. 1, ser. 4, Western Union Telegraph Company Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Orton quote from William Orton to Edwin D. Morgan, May 12, 1876, fold. 9, box 10, Edwin D. Morgan Papers, NYSL.103 Board of Directors' Minutes, September 9, 1874, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, Directors' Minutes, October 1, 1874, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880, 15, 25; Board of Directors' Minutes, September 9, 1874, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, Directors' Minutes, October 1, 1874, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; NYSAD 38, 103rd sess., 1880, 15, 25; RRG RRG, December 15, 22, 29, 1876; NYT NYT, December 17, 1876; Edward Hungerford, Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central Men and Iron: The History of the New York Central (New York: Thomas Y Crowell, 1938), 24954. (New York: Thomas Y Crowell, 1938), 24954.104 Directors' Minutes, June 7, 1871, June 3, 1874, December 18, 1875, Canada Southern Railway Company, reel 68, box 242, NYCRR; Directors' Minutes, June 7, 1871, June 3, 1874, December 18, 1875, Canada Southern Railway Company, reel 68, box 242, NYCRR; Railway World Railway World, January 1, February 5, 1876; NYW NYW, November 15, 1877; NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879.105 Directors' Minutes, July 1, 1875, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; J. W. Brooks to JFJ, April 13, 1875, Telegram, C. J. Brydges to JFJ, April 21, 1875, Joseph Hick-son to JFJ, October 13, 1875, JFJP; Directors' Minutes, July 1, 1875, LS&MS, reel 65, box 243, NYCRR; J. W. Brooks to JFJ, April 13, 1875, Telegram, C. J. Brydges to JFJ, April 21, 1875, Joseph Hick-son to JFJ, October 13, 1875, JFJP; CT CT, September 18, 1875; NYT NYT, October 15, 1875, August 29, 1879; NYW NYW, November 15, 1877; Klein, 196203.106 NYTr NYTr, October 16, 1878; NYH NYH, October 16, 1878; see also NYTr NYTr, April 10, 1878.107 On Morrissey, see On Morrissey, see CT CT, July 25, 1870. On lawsuits against them, see NYH NYH, February 22, 1871. On their court battle with their mother, see NYTr NYTr, December 15, 1871, in CT CT, December 18, 1871; NYT NYT, May 17, 1871; NYH NYH, May 16, 17, 1871. For the quote regarding pantarchy and their status as brokers, see NYT NYT, March 31, 1872; also RGD, NYC 349:1062. On their eviction, see NYH NYH, June 8, 1871. CVs testimony quoted in NYT NYT, January 5, 1875. See also Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "Victoria Woodhull, Anthony Comstock, and Conflict over Sex in the United States in the 1870s," JAH JAH 87, no. 2 (September 2000): 40334, and "A Victoria Woodhull for the 1990s," 87, no. 2 (September 2000): 40334, and "A Victoria Woodhull for the 1990s," Reviews in American History Reviews in American History 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797; Mary Gabriel, 27, no. 1 (1999): 8797; Mary Gabriel, Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Woodhull, Uncensored Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Woodhull, Uncensored (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), and Louis Beachy Underhill, (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1998), and Louis Beachy Underhill, The Woman Who Ran for President: The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull The Woman Who Ran for President: The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull (Bridgehampton, N.Y: Bridge Works Publishing, 1995). Barbara Goldsmith, in (Bridgehampton, N.Y: Bridge Works Publishing, 1995). Barbara Goldsmith, in Other Powers: The Age of Suffrage, Spiritualism, and the Scandalous Victoria Woodhull Other Powers: The Age of Suffrage, Spiritualism, and the Scandalous Victoria Woodhull (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), makes several claims without citing sources-or citing them incorrectly. Two of the most important claims, and perhaps most likely, are that Woodhull and Claflin's mother tried to blackmail CV in early 1871, prompting him to cut the sisters off (2723); and that, upon CVs death, WHV came to see them, and they assured him that they had seen no signs of CVs being of unsound mind (4301). Claflin appears to have attempted to extort money out of WHV during the trial over CVs will, colluding with the challenging attorney, Scott Lord, and threatening a lawsuit on the incredible claim that CV stole money from her; see Tennie C. Claflin to Father, c. 1877 (which includes a copy of a letter from Claflin to WHV), fold. 3, box 4, Tennessee Claflin Cook Family Correspondence, Victoria Woodhull-Martin Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Morris Library, Southern Illinois University, Carbon-dale, Ill. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), makes several claims without citing sources-or citing them incorrectly. Two of the most important claims, and perhaps most likely, are that Woodhull and Claflin's mother tried to blackmail CV in early 1871, prompting him to cut the sisters off (2723); and that, upon CVs death, WHV came to see them, and they assured him that they had seen no signs of CVs being of unsound mind (4301). Claflin appears to have attempted to extort money out of WHV during the trial over CVs will, colluding with the challenging attorney, Scott Lord, and threatening a lawsuit on the incredible claim that CV stole money from her; see Tennie C. Claflin to Father, c. 1877 (which includes a copy of a letter from Claflin to WHV), fold. 3, box 4, Tennessee Claflin Cook Family Correspondence, Victoria Woodhull-Martin Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Morris Library, Southern Illinois University, Carbon-dale, Ill.108 Independent Independent, March 16, 1876; RRG RRG, March 17, 1876; NYH NYH, March 24, 1876; BG BG, April 24, 1876; CT CT, March 17, 1876.109 BG BG, April 24, 1876.110 NYH NYH, April 11, 14, 1876.111 NYW NYW November 15, 1877; November 15, 1877; NYS NYS, November 17, 1877.112 NYT NYT, August 7, 1876; NYW, November 15, 1877; AtlC AtlC, April 30, 1876; NYH NYH, March 9, 1878.113 NYT NYT, December 8, 1877.114 CT CT, May 10, 1876.115 NYH NYH, May 11, 1876.116 NYT NYT, December 15, 1877.117 Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary 2, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYH's (cited hereafter as "Diary 2"). Curiously, she left two parallel diaries with overlapping information. Frank may have made a second record at the time, or she may have copied her original at a later date, leaving out potentially embarrassing revelations, as the primary difference is that only one diary has any references to magnetic healers, who came in to rub CV periodically. Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary 2, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYH's (cited hereafter as "Diary 2"). Curiously, she left two parallel diaries with overlapping information. Frank may have made a second record at the time, or she may have copied her original at a later date, leaving out potentially embarrassing revelations, as the primary difference is that only one diary has any references to magnetic healers, who came in to rub CV periodically.118 Entries for June 4, 19, 1876, Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYH's (cited hereafter as "Diary 1"). Entries for June 4, 19, 1876, Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Diary, 18761878, Misc. Microfilms, reel 72, NYH's (cited hereafter as "Diary 1").119 Entries for August [?]11, September 3, 1876, Diary 2; entry for August 4, 1876, Diary 1; see also Entries for August [?]11, September 3, 1876, Diary 2; entry for August 4, 1876, Diary 1; see also NYT NYT, March 7, 1878.120 Entries for September 12, 27, 28, October 9, 1876, Diary 2; see multiple telegrams in 1876 to McTyeire, fold. 24, box 2, John James Tigert IV Papers, Special Collections, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University. Entries for September 12, 27, 28, October 9, 1876, Diary 2; see multiple telegrams in 1876 to McTyeire, fold. 24, box 2, John James Tigert IV Papers, Special Collections, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University.121 Entry for August 3, 1876, Diary 1; entries for August 8[?], September 27, 1876, Diary 2. Entry for August 3, 1876, Diary 1; entries for August 8[?], September 27, 1876, Diary 2.122 Entries for June 24, August 8, October 4, 1876, Diary 1; entry for October 5, 1876, Diary 2. Corneil mistakenly blamed Frank and Martha Crawford for turning him away; Entries for June 24, August 8, October 4, 1876, Diary 1; entry for October 5, 1876, Diary 2. Corneil mistakenly blamed Frank and Martha Crawford for turning him away; NYS NYS, December 22, 1877.123 NYH NYH, December 17, 1876; NYTr NYTr, February 13, 1879.124 NYS NYS, November 17, 1877; Telegrams, WHV to Bishop H. N. McTyeire, January 4, 1876, 9:12 a.m., 11:41 a.m., 9:55 p.m., fold. 24, box 2, John James Tigert IV Papers, Special Collections, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University.

Epilogue.

1 For examples of especially questionable witnesses, see For examples of especially questionable witnesses, see NYTr NYTr, October 2, 1878; NYH NYH, March 5, 1879.2 A history of the contest appears in A history of the contest appears in NYH NYH, March 5, 1879; see also New York Sunday News New York Sunday News, December 23, 1877, Vanderbilt Will Trial Case Clippings, NYPL; NYTr NYTr, March 21, 1878; NYT NYT, April 8, 1880. It was widely believed that WHV eventually gave Corneil a total of $1 million; RGD, NYC 392:2938.3 Board of Directors' Minutes, January 5, 1877, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, NYCRR. Board of Directors' Minutes, January 5, 1877, NYC&HR, vol. 2, box 93, NYCRR.4 NYH NYH, January 8, 1877; HW HW, January 27, 1877. CV's remains would later be removed to the present family tomb, in the same cemetery, constructed by WHV.5 NYH NYH, May 2, 1878.6 CJV to George Terry fold. 26, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island; Family Record, WFP; CJV to George Terry fold. 26, box 59, ser. 13, Colt Family Papers, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Rhode Island; Family Record, WFP; Richmond County Advance Richmond County Advance, April 15, 1882; NYT NYT, April 3, 1882, May 5, 1885.7 NYT NYT, December 8, 1885. The Colt Papers include voluminous documents related to CJV's final bankruptcy.8 Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency: December 4, 1876 Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency: December 4, 1876 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569; Richard Franklin Bensel, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569; Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 18591877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 26874. The population estimate for 1876 is extrapolated from census data for 1870 and 1880. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 26874. The population estimate for 1876 is extrapolated from census data for 1870 and 1880.9 Forbes Forbes, September 17, 2008; "Money Stock Measures," November 13, 2008, Federal Reserve Statistical Release, http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h6/current/. The Federal Reserve has ceased to publish M3 statistics.10 CFA to George E. Crocker, August 7, 1888, Charles Francis Adams Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library; Jean Strouse, CFA to George E. Crocker, August 7, 1888, Charles Francis Adams Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Department, Boston Public Library; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999), 1959; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., (New York: Random House, 1999), 1959; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., ed., The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings The Railroads; The Nation's First Big Business: Sources and Readings (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 45; Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965), 45; Alfred D. Chandler Jr. and Stephen Salsbury "The Railroads: Innovators in Modern Business Administration," in Bruce Mazlish, The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12762. Strouse's excellent account is marred by one error: she writes of the New York Central as a family-owned company and of Morgan taking it public, whereas it always was a publicly traded corporation in which the Vanderbilts simply owned a majority of the stock. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 12762. Strouse's excellent account is marred by one error: she writes of the New York Central as a family-owned company and of Morgan taking it public, whereas it always was a publicly traded corporation in which the Vanderbilts simply owned a majority of the stock.11 Strouse, 1989; Strouse, 1989; NYS NYS, December 9, 1885.12 Strouse, 2245. Strouse, 2245.13 Louis Auchincloss, Louis Auchincloss, The Vanderbilt Era: Profiles of a Gilded Age The Vanderbilt Era: Profiles of a Gilded Age (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989), 41. For a fine portrait of the successive generations of the Vanderbilt family, see Arthur T. Vanderbilt II, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989), 41. For a fine portrait of the successive generations of the Vanderbilt family, see Arthur T. Vanderbilt II, Fortune's Children: The Fall of the House of Vanderbilt Fortune's Children: The Fall of the House of Vanderbilt (New York: Morrow, 1989). (New York: Morrow, 1989).14 NYT NYT, March 19, 2006.