Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12, opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Bohler of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian, and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year 1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers, from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes, of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin, from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was felt in all the weavings.
If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange, ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses and in immediate contact.
If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique Persian carpets.
Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13, opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture, drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de Commerce at Lyons.
In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the higher products of Persian looms.
[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phnix so common in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons, which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which is the most perfect harmony.
The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called "Hunting Carpets." The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the following extract from his work: "The manuscript of Nizami, one of the pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia's most renowned masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written, was considered one of the most remarkable 'the like of which the eye of time never beheld,' plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the manuscript."
One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital, and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael's reign and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border a dark blue characteristic of this period.
The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan near Kermanshah.
As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and simplicity of colour.
Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following extracts are taken:
"The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream; and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps of the mosque.
"Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground, relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a bold design in blue."
But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the border of the upper end is the following inscription:
"I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold; "My head has no protection other than thy porchway; "The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan, in the year 946."
Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year 946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of Tamasp I.
To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake; since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part of the Safavid dynasty.
[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers; and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period, with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow, and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia, Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
"Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the Immaculate.
Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed Bak'r."
These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses twice, is partly exposed at the back.
Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size, show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show that it is distinctly Iranian.
If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page 78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran, the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is, indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year 1600.
[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal forms.
The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces, the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan, that were made the famous "Polish" silk or "Polonaise" carpets about which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson in his "Eastern Carpets" claims that they were woven in Poland by Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by wealthy connoisseurs of art.
How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years 1604 and 1650.
Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves, and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat, but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes, cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.