+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ KNOT WARP +----------------------------+------------------------------ CENTRAL Number to At back ASIATIC Inches G = S = +----------- w = c = +----------- Ghiordes Sehna H P wool cotton s/l e d h +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+--- Afghan G S 5-8 7-10 w [g] e d Beluchistan S 6-9 7-10 w [g] e d Beshire S 6-9 8-11 [w] [c] g e [d]
Princess Bokhara S 8-1216-24 w e [d]
Royal Bokhara S 8-1214-18 w [g] e Tekke Bokhara S 7-12 9-14 w [g] d Khiva G S 6-10 8-14 w [g] e Samarkand S 6-8 5-8 [w] c h Yomud [G] S 7-12 9-17 w g e [d]
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+ WEFT SIDES LOWER END +--------------------------+-------+----------------- CENTRAL ASIATIC w = c = wool cotton g No. O S W/S K L F +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+--- Afghan w 2 S W F Beluchistan w 2 S W F Beshire [w] [c] g 2/[1] S W F Princess Bokhara w 2 O W F Royal Bokhara w 2 O [S] W F Tekke Bokhara w 2 S W F Khiva w 2 S W K F Samarkand [w] c 2 O W L Yomud w 2 S W F +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+ UPPER END NAP WEAVE TEXTURE +-----------------+-----------+-----------+---------- CENTRAL l = long f = fine l = loose ASIATIC m = medium m = medium m = medium W/S K T F s = short c = coarse f = firm +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+---------- Afghan W F m m/c f Beluchistan W F m c m/l Beshire W F m c f Princess Bokhara W F s f f Royal Bokhara W F m/s m/s f Tekke Bokhara W [T] F m/s m/f f Khiva W F m m f Samarkand W F m c m Yomud W F m m/c f +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
[] indicates the less frequent condition.
CHAPTER XIII
INDIAN RUGS
THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics, that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared with other kinds of rugs.
The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years, but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as follows: "The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their sons, should they have become skilled in their father's art. Upon the completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has always been produced."
After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes, and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis; and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
European companies have established factories where natives are employed making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality, representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking; and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European patterns.
[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and Southern India.
The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh, Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
SRINAGAR.-From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province, Srinagar, the "City of the Sun." To a large extent, they resemble the far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool for which this district is renowned.
AMRITSAR.-On account of famine and several other causes, a large number of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870, deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus gave an impetus to that industry.
Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition of Indian rugs at the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
LAHORE.-About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known carpet now in the possession of the Girdler's Company of London. Some of the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule, the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less crowded.
MULTANS.-One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little artistic merit.
AGRA.-Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst "saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for the ex-Empress Eugenie." Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported on elephants.
ALLAHABAD.-Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad, capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
MIRZAPUR.-When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts have been made to raise their standard.
JUBBULPUR.-Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur, capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: "The foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it during the last four or five years." Within recent years few have been exported.
[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
SINDH.-Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
JAIPUR.-In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The texture of weave is excellent.
The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras, Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
MADRAS.-Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan, were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are copied from antique carpets represented in the "Vienna Carpet Book,"
others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
MARSULIPATAM.-Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave way to crude drawing until "these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves."[36] Few of them are any longer imported into this country.
ELLORE.-Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903, said: "The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception, weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines unskilfully applied."