[280] Numb. xix.
[281] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.
[282] J. J. M. de Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap.
ii.
[283] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, new ed., p. 321 f.
[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).
[285] Examples are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_, loc.
cit.
[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.
[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).
[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.
[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably, as given above.
[290] W. W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.
_Mamurius, Lupercalia_. The beating was supposed also to have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, i, 100 ff.
[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.
[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.
[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of incense in churches.
[294] A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, i, 111 ff.
[295] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xii, 129 ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa); Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. iii; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.
[296] A. L. Kroeber, in _University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology_, ii, viii; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).
[297] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, Index, s.v. _Puberty_; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 55.
[298] See below, under "Taboo."
[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is not a custom of initiation proper.
[300] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 135.
[301] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii, 406 (Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H.
Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 189, 290, and as punishment, Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Mutilation_.
[302] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix, 12.
[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article "Circumcision" in Hastings, _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_.
[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down to the scrotal pouch.
[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.
[306] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 137 f.
[307] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, 368 f.
[308] On phallic cults see below, -- 388 ff.
[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.
[310] A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba_, p. 66.
[311] J. G. Frazer, in the _Independent Review_, iv, 204 ff.
[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. v.
[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii.
[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii, 45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. xi; J. Macdonald, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx, 116.
[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving at the age of puberty; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 503; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 93; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 347.
[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.
[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.
[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings, _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, and the literature there cited.
[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.
[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings, _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_.
[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood-Covenant_, passim; W.
R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., Index, s.v.
_Blood Covenant_.
[322] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf.
Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 185 f.
[323] Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 278.
[324] ---- 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.
[325] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 295 (South Australia); Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 531 f.
[326] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 296 (Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 221, 223, and _Native Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 361.