As the mercurial column rises with increase of pressure by the atmosphere, and descends when the pressure diminishes, it indicates a greater or less accumulation of air, which, like other fluid, such as water (when heaped above its average level or reduced below it, from whatever cause),--will have a tendency to fall or rise till the general equilibrium is restored. An observer may be under the centre of such accumulation or depression, he may be more or less distant from it, though within the influence of whatever horizontal movement of air may be caused by such temporary increase or diminution of pressure. Hence the barometer shows, and generally foretells, changes of wind; but as complications always occur, and as changes are of greater or less extent, affecting or extending through a wider or more limited area, accompanied by hygrometric and electrical alterations, it is extremely difficult at times to say beforehand what particular change of weather is to be expected, and at what interval of time; although after the event the correspondence of barometric changes with those of the weather can be readily traced. However, notwithstanding occasional perplexity, the general character of weather during the next few days may be predicted by an observer who understands the nature and use of this instrument and the thermometer, and has watched them in the few immediately preceding days.
In endeavouring to foretell weather, the general peculiarity should always be remembered, that the barometric column usually stands higher with easterly than it does with westerly winds; and with winds from the polar regions higher than with those from the direction of the equator.
Hence the highest columns are observed with north-east winds in northern latitudes, and with south-east in the southern hemisphere.
In middle latitudes there is an average difference (unreduced or observed height as read off) of about half an inch, other things being similar, between the heights of the mercury with North-easterly, and with South-westerly winds.
The steadier the column, or the more gradually it moves, the more settled in character will the weather be, and conversely: because it shows a quiet settled state of the atmosphere; or, if otherwise, the reverse. In the tropics, when the barometric column moves contrary to its usual daily motion, inferior weather may be expected (temporarily), because the usual air currents are disturbed.
This regular movement, whether tidal, or otherwise connected with the sun's influence--sensible in tropical latitudes, but more or less masked elsewhere--amounts to nearly two-tenths of an inch near the equator, the highest being at about nine, and the lowest near three o'clock.
Some movements of the atmosphere may be illustrated by reference to the motion of water drawn off from a reservoir by a small opening below; or by similar _upward_ draught through a syphon; or by a gradual pouring in at the upper surface.
From a slight motion at the commencement, affecting only that portion of the fluid adjoining either of those places of diminution or repletion, gradually all the water becomes influenced and acquires more or less rapid movement. But suppose a long reservoir or canal of fluid which has two such points of exhaustion or two of such repletion (as imagined above), and that one of either is near each end of the vessel. If each aperture be opened at the same moment, equal effects will be caused in each half of the fluid towards either end of the vessel, but in the middle there must be a neutral point at which the water falls, yet has no horizontal motion. The converse takes place in raising the level. And in the case of fluid drawn off or diminished in weight at one end while increased by repletion at the other, the _whole_ body of water will move similarly to that in the former vessel, but unequally. Hence it is evident, that before horizontal motion occurs, an augmentation or a diminution of pressure must take place somewhere more or less remote; and so it is with the lighter fluid atmosphere,--which has centres, lines, or areas of depression towards which currents flow.
Such considerations show in some degree why the barometric changes usually precede, but sometimes only accompany, changes of weather: and, though very rarely, occur without any sensible alteration in the wind current of the atmosphere. An observer may be near a central point towards which the surrounding fluid tends,--or from which it diverges.
He may be at the very farthest limit of the portion of fluid that is so influenced. He may be at an intermediate point--or he may be between bodies of atmosphere tending towards opposite directions.
It has been said, that "a whirlwind which sets an extended portion of the atmosphere into a state of rapid revolution diminishes the pressure of the atmosphere over that portion of the earth's surface, and most of all at the centre of the whirl. The depth of the compressing column of air will, at the centre, be least, and its weight will be diminished in proportion to the violence of the wind." Yet this has been controverted with respect to the _general_ effect of air in horizontal motion, and the depth of the column in question.
Certainly there are two kinds of whirlwinds--one caused by rarefaction, tending to lighten vertical pressure under the vortex, though not, perhaps, under all the current drawn towards it; and the other, a consequence of opposing winds, which occasion huge eddies or whirlwinds of compression.
Some whirlwinds are accompanied by rushes from the upper atmosphere, from the colder regions, which, mingling with warmer and moister air near the sea, cause dense clouds. About their centre it sometimes happens that the barometer falls as much as two or three inches, showing a diminution of atmospheric pressure by nearly a tenth part; when it should be expected, from physical considerations alone, that very dense clouds would be formed.[24]
The column of mercury falls about one tenth of an inch for each of the first few hundred feet above the sea level, but varying when it becomes much more elevated.[25] Due allowance, therefore, should be made in observing, when on high land.
The tides are affected by atmospheric pressure, so much that a rise of one inch in the barometer will have a corresponding fall in the tides of nine to sixteen inches, or about one foot for each inch.[26]
Vessels sometimes enter docks, or even harbours, where they have scarcely a foot of water more than their draught; and as docking, as well as launching large ships, requires a close calculation of height of water, the state of the barometer becomes of additional importance on such occasions.
To render these pages rather more useful at sea, in _any_ part of the world, a few words about squalls and hurricanes are here offered to the young seaman.
Generally, squalls are preceded, or accompanied, or followed by clouds; but the very dangerous "white squall" (of the West Indies and other regions), is indicated only by a rushing sound, and by white wave crests.
"Descending squalls" come slanting downwards, off high land,[27] or from upper regions of atmosphere. They are dangerous, being sometimes violently strong.
A squall cloud that can be seen through or under is not likely to bring, or be accompanied by, so much wind as a dark continued cloud extending beyond the horizon. How the comparative hardness or softness of clouds foretells more or less wind or rain, was stated in pages 13 and 14.
The expressions "hardening up," "softening," or looking "greasy," are familiar to seamen: and such very sure indications are the appearances so designated, that they can hardly be mistaken.
The rapid or slow rise of a squall cloud--its more or less disturbed look--that is, whether its body is much agitated, and changing form continually, with broken clouds, or scud, flying about--or whether the mass of cloud is shapeless and nearly quiet, though floating onwards across the sky--foretells more or less wind accordingly.
An officer of a watch, with a good eye for clouds and signs of changing weather, may save his men a great deal of unnecessary exposure, as well as work, besides economising sails, spars, and rigging.
In some of the "saws" about wind and weather, there is so much truth that, though trite and simple, their insertion here can do no harm.
Adverting to the barometer:-- When rise begins, after low, Squalls expect and clear blow.
Or:--_First_ rise, after very low, Indicates a stronger blow.
Also:--Long foretold, long last: Short notice, soon past.
To which may be added:--In squalls-- When rain comes before wind, Halyards, sheets, and braces mind.
And:--When wind comes before rain, Soon you may make sail again.
Also, generally speaking:-- When the glass falls low, Prepare for a blow; When it rises high, Let all your kites fly.[28]
To these short expressions--well known, in practice, to the experienced; a very concise but sure rule may be added, for avoiding the central or strongest part of a hurricane, cyclone, typhoon, tornado, or circling storm.
With your face towards the wind, in North latitude, the centre of the circling, or rotatory storm, will be square to your right. In South latitude, square to your left.
The apparent veering of the wind, and the approach or retreat of the dangerous central circle, depend on your position in the curvilinear whirl or sweep.
Draw a circle;--mark the direction of the rotation or circulation, by an arrow with the head towards the left hand (against the movement of a watch's hands) in North latitude; but towards the right (or with the hands of a watch) if in South latitude. The direction of the wind, and the bearing of the centre, show your position in the meteor, for such it is, though perhaps hundreds of miles in diameter; and the veering of the wind, or the contrary, and its change in strength, will show how the meteor is moving bodily--over an extensive region, revolving horizontally--or inclined at a certain angle to the horizontal plane.
If the observer be stationary, in North latitude, and the centre pass on his polar side, he will experience a change of wind from Southward by the West towards North; but if it pass between him and the Equator, the change will be from Southward by the East towards North; but otherwise in South latitude, as his place in circles sketched will show more clearly than words. The roughest sketch or diagram, indicating the various directions of wind, and the course of the meteor's centre, will show more plainly than descriptions--which must necessarily vary with each case, and are tedious.
Cyclonology, or really meteorology, is simple enough in these great characteristic effects; but their causes must be the philosopher's study, rather than that of the young practical seaman.
Were it not for this reflection, one might endeavour to show how all the great Easterly trade winds--the no less important anti-trades,[29] or nearly constant Westerly winds,--and their complicated eddying offsets, are all (on greater or smaller scales) breadths, or zones of atmosphere, alternating, or circulating, or crossing (superposed or laterally)--between which, at distant intervals, occur those strong eddies, or storms, called hurricanes--typhoons--tornadoes--or cyclones.
The great easterly and westerly movements--so clearly shown by philosophers to be the consequences of cold polar currents of air--warm equatorial currents--and diurnal rotation of the earth;[30] are grand ruling phenomena of meteorology--to which storms, and all local changes, occurring but occasionally, are subordinate and exceptional. Further investigations into electrical and chemical peculiarities will probably throw additional light, perhaps the strongest, on meteorological science.
In the previous observations, general reference has been made to mercurial barometers of the ordinary kind; but, excepting the construction of the instruments themselves, those observations apply to all barometers, wheel--aneroid--or metallic--and likewise, of course, to the sympiesometer, which is a modified barometer. But as these four last-mentioned instruments are scarcely so familiar as the simplest form of barometer, it may be useful to add a few words about each of them.
The WHEEL barometer has a syphon tube, partly filled with mercury, on which, at the short or open end of the tube, a float moves, to which a line is attached that moves a wheel, carrying an index.[31]
ANEROID barometers, if often compared with good mercurial columns, are similar in their indications, and valuable; but it must be remembered that they are not independent instruments; that they are set originally by a barometer,[32] require adjustment occasionally, and may deteriorate in time, though slowly.
The aneroid is quick in showing the variation of atmospheric pressure, and to the navigator who knows the difficulty, at times, of using barometers, this instrument is a great boon, for it can be placed anywhere, quite out of harm's way, and is not affected by the ship's motion, although faithfully giving indication of increased or diminished pressure of air.[33] In ascending or descending elevations, the hand of the aneroid may be seen to move (like the hand of a watch), showing the height above the level of the sea, or the difference of level between places of comparison.[34]
The principle on which it is constructed may be explained in a few words, without going into a scientific or too minute detail of its various parts. The weight of a column of air, which in a common barometer acts on the mercury, in the aneroid presses on a small circular metal box, from which nearly all air is extracted; and to this box is connected, by nice mechanical arrangement, the hand visible over the face of the instrument. When the atmospheric pressure is lessened on the vacuum box, a spring acting on levers, turns the hand to the left, and when the pressure increases, the spring is affected differently, the hand being turned to the right. It acts in any position, but as it _often varies several hundredths with such a change_, it should be held uniformly, while read off.
The known expansion and contraction of metals under varying temperatures, caused doubts as to the accuracy of the aneroid under such changes; but they were partly removed by introducing into the vacuum box a small portion of gas, as a compensation for the effects of heat or cold. The gas in the box, changing it bulk on a change of temperature, was intended to compensate for the effect on the metals of which the aneroid is made. Besides which, a further and more, reliable compensation has lately been effected by a combination of brass and steel bars.[35]