740. _Q._--Will the unbroken engine, in the case of disarrangement of one of the two engines of a screw or paddle vessel, be able of itself to turn the centre?
_A._--It will sometimes happen, when there is much lead upon the slide valve, that the single engine, on being started, cannot be got to turn the centre if there be a strong opposing wind and sea; the piston going up to near the end of the stroke, and then coming down again without the crank being able to turn the centre. In such cases, it will be necessary to turn the vessel's head sufficiently from the wind to enable some sail to be set; and if once there is weigh got upon the vessel the engine will begin to work properly, and will continue to do so though the vessel be put head to wind as before.
741. _Q._--What should be done if a crack shows itself in any of the shafts or cranks?
_A._--If the shafts or cranks crack, the engine may nevertheless be worked with moderate pressure to bring the vessel into port; but if the crack be very bad, it will be expedient to fit strong blocks of wood under the ends of the side levers, or other suitable part, to prevent the cylinder bottom or cover from being knocked out, should the damaged part give way. The same remark is applicable when flaws are discovered in any of the main parts of the engine, whether they be malleable or cast iron; but they must be carefully watched, so that the engines may be stopped if the crack is extending further. Should fracture occur, the first thing obviously to be done is to throw the engines out of gear; and should there be much weigh on the vessel, the steam should at once be thrown on the reverse side of the piston, so as to counteract the pressure of the paddle wheel.
742. _Q._--Have you any information to offer relative to the lubrication of engine bearings?
_A._--A very useful species of oil cup is now employed in a number of steam vessels, and which, it is said, accomplishes a considerable saving of oil, at the same time that it more effectually lubricates the bearings. A ratchet wheel is fixed upon a little shaft which passes through the side of the oil cup, and is put into slow revolution by a pendulum attached to its outside and in revolving it lifts up little buckets of oil and empties them down a funnel upon the centre of the bearing. Instead of buckets a few short pieces of wire are sometimes hung on the internal revolving wheel, the drops of oil which adhere on rising from the liquid being deposited.
upon a high part set upon the funnel, and which, in their revolution, the hanging wires touch. By this plan, however, the oil is not well supplied at slow speeds, as the drops fall before the wires are in proper position for feeding the journal. Another lubricator consists of a cock or plug inserted in the neck of the oil cup, and set in revolution by a pendulum and ratchet wheel, or any other means. There is a small cavity in one side of the plug, which is filled with oil when that side is uppermost, and delivers the oil through the bottom pipe when it comes opposite to it.
743. _Q._--What are the prevailing causes of the heating of bearings?
_A._--Bad fitting, deficient surface, and too tight screwing down.
Sometimes the oil hole will choke, or the syphon wick for conducting the oil from the oil cup into the central pipe leading to the bearing will become clogged with mucilage from the oil. In some cases bearings heat from the existence of a cruciform groove on the top brass for the distribution of the oil, the effect of which is to leave the top of the bearings dry. In the case of revolving journals the plan for cutting a cruciform channel for the distribution of the oil does not do much damage; but in other cases, as in beam journals, for instance, it is most injurious, and the brasses cannot wear well wherever the plan is pursued. The right way is to make a horizontal groove along the brass where it meets the upper surface of the bearing, so that the oil may be all deposited on the highest point of the journal, leaving the force of gravity to send it downward. This channel should, of course, stop short a small distance from each flange of the brass, otherwise the oil would run out at the ends.
744. _Q._--If a bearing heats, what is to be done?
_A._--The first thing is to relax the screws, slow or stop the engine, and cool the bearing with water, and if it is very hot, then hot water may be first employed to cool it, and then cold. Oil with sulphur intermingled is then to be administered, and as the parts cool down, the screws may be again cautiously tightened, so as to take any jump off the engine from the bearing being too slack. The bearings of direct acting screw engines require constant watching, as, if there be any disposition to heat manifested by them, they will probably heat with great rapidity from the high velocity at which the engines work. Every bearing of a direct acting screw engine should have a cock of water laid on to it, which may be immediately opened wide should heating occur; and it is advisable to work the engine constantly, partly with water, and partly with oil applied to the bearings. The water and oil are mixed by the friction into a species of soap which both cools and lubricates, and less oil moreover is used than if water were not employed. It is proper to turn off the water some time before the engine is stopped, so as to prevent the rusting of the bearings.
MANAGEMENT OF LOCOMOTIVES.
745. _Q._--What are the chief duties of the engine driver of a locomotive?
_A._--His first duties are those which concern the safety of the train; his next those which concern the safety and right management of the engine and
boiler. The engine driver's first solicitude should be relative to the observation and right interpretation of the signals; and it is only after these demands upon his attention have been satisfied, that he can look to the state of his engine.
746. _Q._--As regards the engine and boiler, what should his main duties be?
_A._--The engineer of a locomotive should constantly be upon the foot board of the engine, so that the regulator, the whistle or the reversing handle may be used instantly, if necessary; he must see that the level of the water in the boiler is duly maintained, and that the steam is kept at a uniform pressure. In feeding the boilers with water, and the furnaces with fuel, a good deal of care and some tact are necessary, as irregularity in the production of steam will often occasion priming, even though the water be maintained at a uniform level; and an excess of water will of itself occasion priming, while a deficiency is a source of obvious danger. The engine is generally furnished with three gauge cocks, and water should always come out of the second gauge cock, and steam out of the top one when the engine is running: but when the engine is at rest, the water in the boiler is lower than when in motion, so that when the engine is at rest, the water will be high enough if it just reaches to the middle gauge cock.
In all boilers which generate steam rapidly, the volume of the water is increased by the mingled steam, and in feeding with cold water the level at first falls; but it rises on opening the safety valve, which causes the steam in the water to swell to a larger volume. In locomotive boilers, the rise of the water level due to the rapid generation of steam is termed "false water." To economize fuel, the variable expansion gear, if the engine has one, should be adjusted to the load, and the blast pipe should be worked with the least possible contraction; and at stations the damper should be closed to prevent the dissipation of heat.
747. _Q._--In starting from a station, what precautions should be observed with respect to the feed?
_A._--In starting from a station, and also in ascending inclined planes, the feed water is generally shut off; and therefore before stopping or ascending inclined planes, the boiler should be well filled up with water.
In descending inclined planes an extra supply of water may be introduced into the boiler, and the fire may be fed, as there, is at such times a superfluity of steam. In descending inclined planes the regulator must be partially closed, and it should be entirely closed if the plane be very steep. The same precaution should be observed in the case of curves, or rough places on the line, and in passing over points or crossings.
748. _Q._--In approaching a station, how should the supply of water and fuel be regulated?
_A._--The boiler should be well filled with water on approaching a station, as there is then steam to spare, and additional water cannot be conveniently supplied when the engine is stationary. The furnace should be fed with small quantities of fuel at a time, and the feed should be turned off just before a fresh supply of fuel is introduced. The regulator may, at the same time, be partially closed; and if the blast pipe be a variable one, it will be expedient to open it widely while the fuel is being introduced, to check the rush of air in through the furnace door, and then to contract it very much so soon as the furnace door is closed, in order to recover the fire quickly. The proper thickness of coke upon the grate depends upon the intensity of the draught; but in heavily loaded engines it is usually kept up to the bottom of the fire door. Care, however, must be taken that the coke does not reach up to the bottom row of tubes so as to choke them up. The fuel is usually disposed on the grate like a vault; and if the fire box be a square one, it is heaped high in the corners, the better to maintain the combustion.
749. _Q._--How can you tell whether the feed pumps are operating properly?
_A._--To ascertain whether the pumps are acting well, the pet cock must be turned, and if any of the valves stick they will sometimes be induced to act again by working with the pet cock open, or alternately open and shut.
Should the defect arise from a leakage of steam into the pump, which prevents the pump from drawing, the pet cock remedies the evil by permitting the steam to escape.
750. _Q._--What precautions should be taken against priming in locomotives?
_A._--Should priming occur from the water in the boiler being dirty, a portion of it may be blown out; and should there be much boiling down through the glass gauge tube, the stop cock may be partially closed. The water should be wholly blown out of locomotive boilers three times a week, and at those times two mud-hole doors at opposite corners of the boiler should be opened, and the boiler be washed internally by means of a hose.
If the boiler be habitually fed with dirty water, the priming will be a constant source of trouble.
751. _Q._--What measures should the locomotive engineer take, to check the velocity of the train, on approaching a station where he has to stop?
_A._--On approaching a station the regulator should be gradually closed, and it should be completely shut about half a mile from the station if the train be a very heavy one: the train may then be brought to rest by means of the breaks. Too much reliance, however, must not be put upon the breaks, as they sometimes give way, and in frosty weather are nearly inoperative.
In cases of urgency the steam may be thrown upon the reverse side of the piston, but it is desirable to obviate this necessity as far as possible.
At terminal stations the steam should be shut off earlier than at roadside stations, as a collision will take place at terminal stations if the train overshoots the place where it ought to stop. There should always be a good supply of water when the engine stops, but the fire may be suffered gradually to burn low toward the conclusion of the journey.
752. _Q._--What is the duty of an engine man on arriving at the end of his journey?
_A._--So soon as the engine stops it should be wiped down, and be then carefully examined: the brasses should be tried, to see whether they are slack or have been heating; and, by the application of a gauge, it should be ascertained occasionally whether the wheels are square on their axles, and whether the axles have end play, which should be prevented. The stuffing boxes must be tightened, and the valve gear examined, and the eccentrics be occasionally looked at to see that they have not shifted on their axles, though this defect will be generally intimated by the irregular beating of the engines. The tubes should also be examined and cleaned out, and the ashes emptied out of the smoke box through the small ash door at the end. If the engine be a six-wheeled one, with the driving wheels in the middle, it will be liable to pitch, and oscillate if too much weight be thrown upon the driving wheels; and where such faults are found to exist, the weight upon the drivings wheels should be diminished. The practice of blowing off the boiler by the steam, as is always done in marine boilers, should not be permitted as a general rule in locomotive boilers, when the tubes are of brass and the fire box of copper; but when the tubes and fire boxes are of iron, there will not be an equal risk of injury. Before starting on a journey, the engine man should take a summary glance beneath the engine--but before doing so he ought to assure himself that no other engine is coming up at the time. The regulator, when the engine is standing, should be closed and locked, and the eccentric rod be fixed out of gear, and the tender break screwed down; the cocks of the oil vessels should at the same time be shut, but should all be opened a short time before the train starts.
753. _Q._--What should be done if a tube bursts in the boiler?
_A._--When a tube bursts, a wooden or iron plug must be driven into each end of it, and if the water or steam be rushing out so fiercely that the exact position of the imperfection cannot be discovered, it will be advisable to diminish the pressure by increasing the supply of feed water.
Should the leak be so great that the level of the water in the boiler cannot be maintained, it will be expedient to drop the bars and quench the fire, so as to preserve the tubes and fire box from injury.
754. _Q._--If any of the working parts of a locomotive break or become deranged, what should be done?
_A._--Should the piston rod or connecting rod break, or the cutters fall out or be clipped off--as sometimes happens to the piston cutter when the engine is suddenly reversed upon a heavy train--the parts should be disconnected, if the connection cannot be restored, so as to enable one engine to work; and of course the valve of the faulty engine must be kept closed. If one engine has not power enough to enable the train to proceed with the blast pipe full open, the engine may perhaps be able to take on a part of the carriages, or it may run on by itself to fetch assistance. The same course must be pursued if any of the valve gearing becomes deranged, and the defects cannot be rectified upon the spot.
755. _Q._--What are the most usual causes of railway collisions?
_A._--Probably fogs and inexactness in the time kept by the trains.
Collisions have sometimes occurred from carriages having been blown from a siding on to the rails by a high wind; and the slippery state of the rails, or the fracture of a break, has sometimes occasioned collisions at terminal stations. Collision has also repeatedly taken place from one engine having overtaken another, from the failure of a tube in the first engine, or from some other slight disarrangement; and collision has also taken place from the switches having been accidentally so left as to direct the train into a siding, instead of continuing it on the main line. Every train now carries fog signals, which are detonating packets, which are fixed upon the rails in advance or in the rear of a train which, whether from getting off the rails or otherwise, is stopped upon the line, and which are exploded by the wheels of any approaching train.
756. _Q._--What other duties of an engine-driver are there deserving attention?
_A._--They are too various to be all enumerated here, and they also vary somewhat with the nature of the service. One rule, however, of universal application, is for the driver to look after matters himself, and not delegate to the stoker the duties which the person in charge of the engine should properly perform. Before leaving a station, the engine-driver should assure himself that he has the requisite supply of coke and water. Besides the firing tools and rakes for clearing the tubes, he should have with him in the tender a set of signal lamps and, torches, for tunnels and for night, detonating signals, screw keys, a small tank of oil, a small cask of tallow, and a small box of waste, a coal hammer, a chipping hammer, some wooden and iron plugs for the tubes, and an iron tube holder for inserting them, one or two buckets, a screw jack, wooden and iron wedges, split wire for pins, spare cutters, some chisels and files, a pinch bar, oil cans and an oil syringe, a chain, some spare bolts, and some cord, spun yarn, and rope.
THE END.